Save
Save chapter to my Bookmarks
Cite
Cite this chapter
Print this chapter
Share
Share a link to this chapter
Free
Index
Amy Werbel
Description: Thomas Eakins: Art, Medicine, and Sexuality in Nineteenth-Century Philadelphia
Thomas Eakins: Art, Medicine, and Sexuality in Nineteenth-Century Philadelphia
Index
Author
Amy Werbel
PublisherYale University Press
Copyright© 2007 by Amy B. Werbel
https://doi.org/10.37862/aaeportal.00168.010
Stable URL: https://aaeportal.com/?id=-15027
View chapters with similar subject tags
Chapter images ()
Loading image navigation...
No image index could be found for this publication.
Close this Panel
Show previous images Show next images
Index
Page numbers in italics refer to illustrations
academies (nude photographs), 90–94, 101, 125
as Eakins’ influence, 95, 96, 122
Eakins’ nudes contrasted with, 99
props and poses for, 95
Academy Art Club, 131
Academy of Natural Sciences, 31, 62
Adams, Henry, 2
“Advice to a Young Man on the Choice of a Mistress” (Franklin), 27, 160–61
aesthetic movement, 143, 145, 146
aesthetics, 33, 79–80, 82, 84
African-Americans: Eakins and, 106–7, 107, 156–57
as grave-robbing victims, 126, 136–39, 140, 145
Agassiz, Louis, 106
Agnew, David Hayes, 28, 30–35, 46, 50, 132
and Anatomy Act, 136
and coeducational classes, 69
Eakins’ portrait of, 5, 28, 29
and Forbes’ trial, 140
lecture method of, 30, 31, 32, 52
and macabre humor, 32–33
and medical reforms, 102–3
sexism of, 44–45, 47, 52
and surgery, 46, 47, 49
Treatise on the Principles and Practices of Surgery, 46
Agnew clinic (Chambers photograph), 47, 48
Agnew Clinic, The (Eakins), 28, 29, 30–31, 30, 32, 101
critical reception of, 34–35, 36
description of, 28, 30, 35, 46, 47–48
Eakins as figure in, 28, 30, 30, 49, 52
as Eakins’ magnum opus, 34
Gross Clinic contrasted with, 35, 46, 47
modern academic discourse on, 44–49
pedagogical focus of, 52
recognition of women and, 49, 52
shocking elements of, 46–47
Albermarle Club (London), 142, 143
albinos, 105, 106
alcoholic drinks, 24, 25
Alcott, William A.: The Physiology of Marriage, 25
Alice Liddell as a beggar child (Dodgson photograph), 109
Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland (Carroll), 107, 108
Allen, Harrison, 31, 117, 118–19, 156
Allston, Washington, 60
American Academy of Fine Arts, 15
American Anthropometric Society, 84
American Drawing Book (Chapman), 60
American Medical Association, 68
American Philosophical Hall, 10
American Philosophical Society, 5
Anatomical Lecture by Dr. William Williams Keen (C. H. Stephens), 59, 60
anatomy: animal, 62–63, 63, 88, 156
in art curriculum, 15, 54, 55, 57–65, 67, 75–79, 84, 105, 136
artistic fidelity to, 39, 41, 55, 57–58, 78–79, 80, 105
artistic vs. medical approach to, 27, 33, 62, 78–79, 105
Eakins controversies and, 30–31, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 43, 51–52, 55, 75, 77–78
as Eakins’ passion, 55, 85
Forbes and, 132, 134–39, 149
human models of, 64–65
in medical curriculum, 49–51, 55, 58, 59–60, 62–67, 70, 75–76, 80, 85, 104–5, 113, 135–36, 139
medical humor and, 32–33, 76
nude photographs and, 85, 90, 99, 103–4, 103, 113, 117, 118–19, 120, 122
pelvis’s importance to, 75, 77
sexual images vs., 124
spine and, 75, 104–5, 105, 113
textbooks of, 60–62, 63–64, 75–76, 99, 149
women students of, 68, 69, 132. See also dissection; nudity
Anatomy Act of 1867 (Pennsylvania), 132, 134–35, 136, 137, 139, 149
Anatomy Book, Plate IX (Copley), 57–58, 57
Anatomy, Descriptive and Surgical. See Gray’s Anatomy
Animal Locomotion: The Muybridge Work at the University of Pennsylvania, 116, 117–21, 120, 122, 124
animals: dissection of, 62–63, 63, 70
photographs of, 88, 89, 117, 156
Anshutz, Thomas, 76, 119
anthropological photography, 106
anti-obscenity campaign. See obscenity laws
antique cast drawing, 58, 61, 62, 68
antiquities. See classical themes
antisepsis, 46–47, 66–67
Arcadia (Eakins), 41, 96, 97, 98, 111, 113
Ariadne Asleep on the Island of Naxos (Vanderlyn), 17
Aristotle’s Masterpiece (sex manual), 24
Arnold, Matthew, 122
Art Amateur (publication), 114
Art Anatomy (Rimmer), 58, 60, 61
art education: anatomical training and, 15, 54, 55, 57–65, 67, 75–79, 82, 84, 105, 136
classroom lectures and, 59, 60
coeducational nude viewing and, 16, 75, 85, 124, 129, 130, 158
competition for students and, 65–66
curricular reforms in, 9, 15, 55, 57–65, 67, 116, 117
drawing study and, 26
faculty concept and, 66
French vs. American, 17, 18, 20, 65, 130 (see also Paris)
personal nudity and, 1, 2, 15–16, 21, 41, 72–73, 75, 158
photography used in, 103
separation of sexes and, 59, 68, 70
women students and, 16, 52, 68–75, 71, 82, 83, 84, 124, 129, 158. See also Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts
Art Interchange (journal), 115, 152
Artist in His Museum, The (C. W. Peale), 14, 15
artist-scientist tradition, 2, 27, 78
Art Journal, 79
Art Students’ League of New York, 59, 65
Eakins’ art anatomy lectures at, 55, 77–78
nudity debate and, 73
Art Students’ League of Philadelphia, 55, 140
disbanding of, 141
Eakins’ photographic nudes and, 95, 99
founding of, 16, 128–29, 154
athletes: Eakins’ paintings of, 24, 35–36, 36
as models, 58, 73
nude photographs of, 95, 119, 123, 124
“Autocrat of the Breakfast Table, The” (Holmes column), 75
Baby at Play (Eakins), 111, 112, 140, 157
Bache, Alexander Dallas, 26, 27
“bachelor’s pictures,” 10, 93, 94
Back of Male Torso (Eakins), 53, 54
Baltimore, 18, 19, 20, 22, 65
Barber, Alice. See Stephens, Alice Barber
Barbour, Hugh, 155
Barnum, P. T., 102
baseball players, 35
Battle of Cascina (Michelangelo), 97–98
Beale, Joseph Boggs, 24, 26, 31
beauty, 82, 84, 97, 122
Beaux, Cecilia, 76, 80, 82, 84
Beecher, Cliff., 31
Berger, Martin, 111
Berkowitz, Julie, 48
Bibliothèque Nationale de France, 91
Biglin brothers, 35, 36
Billy Budd (Melville), 142
Birth of the Clinic, The (Foucault), 51, 80
birth control, 20, 73, 146
Blanchard, Mary Warner, 146
Blashfield, Edwin H., 77
body: art world’s tacit conventions and, 36–37
bronze mold vs. sculpture of, 53
cultural attitudes and, 73, 84–85
Eakins’ clinical approach to, 80, 99, 124, 131–32
homoeroticism and, 41–42, 98, 98, 123
idealized vs. realistic portrayal of, 80, 82, 99
medical vs. art world’s view of, 33–34, 35, 39, 55, 80, 82
nude photographs of, 90–99, 101, 122, 125
sexual attitudes and, 23–24, 36, 49
social class conventions and, 122–23, 131–32, 137, 140. See also anatomy; cadavers; dissection; models; nudity
body snatching, 134–39
Bogdan, Robert, 102, 105
Bonnat, Léon, 39
Boston, 17, 37, 57–58
Boston Daily Advertiser, 37
Boston Female Medical School, 68
Bouguereau, Adolphe William: Nymphs and Satyr, 94
Braddock, Alan, 138, 154
Brady, Mathew, 102, 106
General Tom Thumb, wife & child, 102, 102
brain weights, 84
Braquehais, Bruno, 93, 95
Nude female, reclining, from rear, 93, 93
Braun, Marta, 120, 121
breasts: anatomical description of, 48
cancer surgery on, 28, 35, 36, 45, 46, 47, 101
desexualization of, 50, 51, 75
erotic photographs of, 98
paintings of naked, 36, 47–48, 51
photographs of naked, 91
symbolism of, 46
Bregler, Charles, 159, 160
Bridgman, Frederick, 130
Brinton, Howard H., 158
Brinton, John Hill, 5, 156
bronze-cast body parts, 53, 54–55, 54
brothels, 21, 90
Brownell, William, 58, 59, 67, 78, 79, 157
Brush, George de Forrest, 130
Burke, Edmund, 46, 48
buttocks, 36, 46, 91, 114
cadavers, 62, 65, 72, 75
anatomical photographs vs., 118
Forbes trial and, 126, 132, 139
pranks with, 76
sources of, 134–39. See also dissection
camera. See photography
cancer: breast surgery for, 28, 35, 36, 45–46, 47, 101
President Cleveland’s surgery for, 53, 55
tumor photographs, 101, 101
Carroll, Lewis (Charles L. Dodgson), 107–10, 125
Carson, Edward, 143, 144, 147–48
Cassatt, Mary, 110, 111, 113–14
Catholicism, 155
celibacy, 25, 44
censorship, 73–74, 79, 90, 94, 121
rationale for, 24, 27
Centennial Exhibition (Philadelphia, 1876), 14, 15, 28, 52, 123, 158
Central High School (Philadelphia), 3–4, 24–27, 44, 92, 132, 154, 156
curriculum of, 25–26, 31
graduates of, 117
Chamberlin-Hellman, Maria, 104
Chambers, George, 47, 48
Champion Single Sculls, The (Max Schmitt in a Single Scull) (Eakins), 35, 36
Chang and Eng, 53, 102
Chapman, Nathaniel, 58
American Drawing Book, 60
Chase, William Merritt, 36
William Williams Keen, Jr., 84, 84
Chess Players, The (Eakins), 151, 151
Chew, Robert, 137, 138
Chicago, 41
World’s Columbian Exhibition, 34
children, 107–14, 109
Eakins’ nude photographs of, 94, 107, 108, 124
Muybridge’s nude photographs of, 119, 120
Victorian conventions and, 107, 110, 113, 114
“Christ Crucified by Eakins” (art review), 37
circus, 102
Civil War, 5, 67, 135
nude photographs and, 93–94
Clark, William, 34
Clarke, Sir Edward, 147
class. See middle class; social attitudes
classical themes, 11, 17, 17, 18, 18, 19, 20
anatomical drawing and, 58, 61, 62, 68
Eakins linked with, 41
nude photographs and, 90, 91, 96, 97, 103
photographic comparisons and, 104, 104
Cleopatra Before Caesar (Gérôme), 114
Cleveland, Grover, 53, 55
Clymer, Mary V., 46–47, 49
Coates, Edward Hornor, 39, 41, 75, 82, 117, 124
background of, 122, 156
dismissal of Eakins by, 119, 122, 127
Eakins’ defense letters to, 127–28, 130, 131
Eakins’ letter on female artists’ potential to, 82–83
Eakins’ “naked series” and, 121, 122
co-education: art class nudity and, 16, 75, 85, 124, 129, 130, 158
Eakins’ egalitarianism and, 52
as identical for women, 74
medicine and, 45, 68–70
Quakers’ reason for, 158
Cohen, Morton, 108, 110
College Avenue Anatomy School (Philadelphia), 135
College of Physicians of Philadelphia, 5, 53, 128, 134–35, 136
Columbianum, 15
Columbia University Medical School, 68
Compendium of Picturesque Anatomy, Adapted to the Arts of Design, Painting, Sculpture, and Engraving (Smith), 60–61, 61
Comstock, Anthony, 73–74, 79, 90, 121
condoms, 20
Constitution, U.S., 3
contraceptives, 20, 73, 146
Cooper Union, 55, 58
Cope, Edward Drinker, 156
Copley, John Singleton, 57–58, 63
Anatomy Book, Plate IX, 57–58, 57
Corliss, Elizabeth, 80
corpses. See cadavers
Correggio, 17
Countway Medical Library (Harvard Medical School), 61
Courbet, Gustave, 90
Court of Death, The (R. Peale), 22–23, 22, 24–25
Cowperthwaite, Caroline. See Eakins, Caroline Cowperthwaite
Cowperthwaite, Eliza, 140, 152, 154
Cowperthwaite, Margaret Jones, 154
Cowperthwaite, Mark, 155
Cowperthwaite, Samuel, 155
Cox, Kenyon: An Eclogue, 36, 37
Cresson, H. T., 128, 129, 130, 154
Crowell, Ben, 140, 141, 146
Crowell, Ella, 140–42
as Baby at Play subject, 111, 112, 140
suicide of, 4–5, 140, 141–42, 146
Crowell, Frances (Fanny) Eakins, 92, 131, 140–41, 142, 146
Crowell, Kathrin, 4, 160
Crowell, Maggie, 140, 141, 142, 146
Crowell, Will, 131, 140, 141, 146
Crucifixion, The (Eakins), 30, 36–38, 38, 52
anatomical precision of, 51
hostile response to, 36–38, 78
model for, 36–37, 41
Cuvier, Georges, 11, 11
DaCosta, Jacob Mendez, 5, 25, 69, 70, 99, 101
Eakins’ letter to, 148–49
Daguerre, Louis, 86
daguerreotypes, 86, 106
Danaë and the Shower of Gold (Wertmüller), 17, 17
Danto, Arthur C., 88
Darwinism, 33
David (Donatello), 98
Davis, Whitney, 42
Day, Fred Holland, 98, 147
“Death, a Poetical Essay” (Porteus), 22
Declaration of Independence, 3
deformities, photographs of, 101–2, 101
deism, 155
Delacroix, Eugène, 39, 90
Dercum, Francis X., 117, 118, 119, 121
Dewing, Thomas, 36
“Differential Action of Certain Muscles Passing More than One Joint” (Eakins paper), 31
Dissecting room, University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine (photograph), 48, 49
dissection, 15, 30–33, 32, 39, 48, 49
in art students’ curriculum, 57–64, 67, 72, 78, 139, 140
cadavers for, 62, 132, 134, 135–39
desexualizing effects of, 50–51
Eakins’ bronze casts and drawings of, 53, 54–55, 54, 62–63, 63
homosocial lab culture and, 76
jokes and pranks and, 76
medical students’ reactions to, 48, 49–51
Pancoast’s laboratory and, 31–32, 32, 48
women students and, 68, 69, 70, 72, 74, 75, 129
Dissection Study: Human (Tendons Crossing the Joint of the Little Finger, Left Arm (Eakins drawing), 63
doctors. See medical profession
Dodge, Mrs. James Mapes, 80
Dodgson, Charles Lutwidge. See Carroll, Lewis
Donatello: David, 98
Dougherty, Dennis, 155
Douglas, Lord Alfred, 142, 143, 144
Doyle, Jennifer, 142
D’Oyly Carte company, 143
draft lottery, 5
drawing: Central High School instruction in, 26
in Eakins’ art curriculum, 58
Eakins’ dissection, 53–54, 62–63, 63
Eakins’ preparatory, 86
Dream of Love (R. Peale), 20
Drexel Institute, 77
Dr. William H. Pancoast’s anatomy dissection laboratory (photograph), 31–32, 32, 48
dry-plate negatives, 89, 94, 97
Duchenne de Boulogne, G. B., Mécanisme de la physionomie humaine, ou, Analyse électro-physiologique de l’expression des passions, 104, 104
Düsseldorf, 65, 125
Eakins, Alexander (grandfather), 150, 151
Eakins, Benjamin (father), 3, 151, 152, 153
background and career of, 150–51, 154, 155–56, 158
defense of son by, 131, 150, 151–52, 158
Mount Vernon Street House of, 127, 131, 140, 141, 151
son’s letters to, 21, 31, 43, 91, 110
son’s paintings of, 151, 152, 153
Eakins, Caroline (sister). See Stephens, Caroline Eakins
Eakins, Caroline Cowperthwaite (mother), 3, 150, 154–55
Eakins, Frances (sister). See Crowell, Frances (Fanny) Eakins
Eakins, Margaret (Maggie; sister), 89, 89, 130, 131
Eakins, Susan Macdowell (wife), 4, 86, 130, 131, 140, 141
Eakins’ compatibility with, 158–59, 160
as Eakins’ defender, 142, 150, 158, 159
as Eakins’ student, 52, 76, 158
informal photographs of, 89, 89
nude photograph of, 94, 97, 103, 124
photograph of Eakins by, 89, 90
sales of works by, 158
works: Agnew Clinic detail, 28, 30, 30, 49, 52, 159
Woman in a Plaid Shawl, 159, 159
Eakins, Thomas, 148
academic posts of, 55
anatomical focus of, 35–41, 51–55, 58, 62, 67, 76–80, 82, 85, 124, 136, 140
anatomy studies of, 31, 48, 49, 50
art curriculum of, 9, 10, 15, 58–60, 64, 65, 116, 154
artistic excess and, 21, 27
artistic intentions of vs. public response to, 30, 51
artistic methods of, 86, 88, 154
as artist provocateur, 46
in artist-scientist tradition, 2, 27
as art student in Paris, 4, 21, 31, 39, 55, 89–90, 91–92, 110, 130, 152
art world’s recognition of, 149
child nudes and, 7, 94, 106, 108, 110, 111, 113–14
class prejudices of, 152, 154
critics and, 34–35, 36–38, 41, 52, 78–79, 80, 148–49, 152
dismissal from Pennsylvania Academy, 16, 21, 52, 55, 67, 75, 77, 84, 85, 119, 122, 126–28, 141
eccentricities of, 121, 126, 157–58
education of, 3–4, 24–25, 26, 27, 39, 55, 132
egalitarianism of, 15, 16, 49, 52, 68, 69, 70, 72–73, 75, 76, 82–83, 85, 124, 129, 156–57
family background of, 3–4, 23, 24, 150–61
as figure in Agnew Clinic, 28, 30, 30, 48, 49
and Forbes’ trial, 139–40
and gender conventions, 111, 123, 124, 131
important paintings of, 28–52
indiscretions and nonconformity of, 1, 4–5, 23, 30, 37, 39, 41, 75, 77, 83–84, 121, 126, 127, 150, 157–58, 160
influences on, 39, 52, 55, 132
and male body, 37, 39, 42–43, 105
marriage of, 4, 52, 158–60
medical humor and, 76
medical interests of, 11, 13, 14, 25, 82, 131–32, 134
modern academics and, 43–49, 123
moral reformers and, 23, 25
motion portrayal and, 114–23
Muybridge and, 117–18, 119, 121–22, 132
nude posing by, 1, 2, 16, 21, 94–95, 95, 97, 103, 103, 123, 124, 127, 141
Philadelphia and, 2, 3, 121, 122, 150–58
photographic projects of, 9, 41, 42, 43, 83, 86, 88, 89–90, 94–98, 99, 103–5, 103, 107, 117–23, 124, 125, 127
as photographic subject, 88–89, 88, 90, 97
and portraiture, 5, 6, 7, 8, 11, 13, 14, 28, 31, 55, 80, 82, 84, 132, 136, 146, 148–49, 156, 157–58
psychological theories about, 123
Quaker influence on, 150, 154–56, 157, 158
and realism, 80, 82, 84, 148–49, 157–58
religious views of, 37, 155, 158
salary of, 66
scandals of 1886 of, 41, 83–84, 126–32, 140, 141, 160
scandals of 1897 of, 4–5, 126, 140–42, 146–47, 160
self-defense letter by, 83–84
seriousness of, 160
sexual abuse charges against, 127–28, 130–31, 140, 142, 146
sexuality speculations about, 4, 5, 41–44, 49, 160
sports and, 24, 35
student supporters of; 76, 128, 129–30
student-teacher nudity and, 1, 2, 4, 21, 75, 95–96, 99
successful female students of, 76
teaching methods of, 55
on women’s potential for greatness, 82–83
work ethic of, 9
—paintings and sculptures: The Agnew Clinic, 28–36, 29, 44–49, 51, 52, 101
Arcadia, 41, 96, 97, 98, 111, 113
Baby at Play, 111, 112, 140, 157
Back of Male Torso, 53, 54
The Champion Single Sculls (Max Schmitt in a Single Scull), 35, 36
The Chess Players, 151, 151
The Crucifixion, 30, 36–38, 38, 41, 51, 52, 78
The Gross Clinic, 11, 13, 14, 28, 30, 35, 36, 37, 42, 52, 57, 94, 111, 123, 132, 149, 152, 158
Knitting, 53, 122
A May Morning in the Park, 86, 87, 88, 116
Miss Amelia C. Van Buren, 80, 81, 82
Portrait of Benjamin Howard Rand, M.D., 6, 7, 149
Portrait of Mary Adeline Williams, 55, 56
Portrait of Professor Henry A. Rowland, 6, 8
Self-Portrait, 148, 149
Singing a Pathetic Song, 41, 122
Spinning, 53, 54, 122
Swimming, 4, 28, 30, 36, 39, 40, 41–43, 44, 45, 46, 49, 51, 86, 96, 97–98, 122, 124, 126, 147
William Rush and His Model, 98–99, 100
William Rush Carving His Allegorical Figure of the Schuylkill River, 79, 79
William Smith Forbes, 132, 133, 149
The Writing Master (Portrait of Benjamin Eakins), 152, 153, 155–56
—photographs: Female nude kneeling on table, 94, 95
John Wright nude, posing for George Reynolds at easel, 96
Margaret Eakins and other figures on beach at Manasquan, New Jersey, 89, 89
Naked Series, 103–5, 103, 107, 127
Six males nude, two wrestling at right, 41
Three Crowell boys nude, in Creek at Avondale, Pennsylvania, 108
Eclogue, An (Cox), 36, 37
Ecole des Beaux-Arts (Paris), 4, 21, 65, 130
academic nude photographs and, 90, 91
education: Agnew Clinic as allegory of, 52
Eakins on women’s access to, 82–83
European curriculum and, 26, 32, 44, 65
Gross Clinic as commentary on, 111
moral reform movement and, 23, 24
“New Woman” ideal and, 72, 74
personal nudity and, 65, 73, 123, 124, 127, 129, 130, 131, 141, 158
public institutions of, 3–4, 9, 24–27
Quaker institutions of, 156, 158
women’s separate and unequal access to, 68, 70, 72, 82–83, 129. See also art education; co-education; medical education
Elements of Moral Science, The (Wayland), 92
engineering, 2, 9, 115, 117
England, 4, 6, 142–48
Enlightenment, 155
eroticism, 94, 114, 121, 123
“Erotic Revisions” (Davis), 42
ethnic displays, 105–6
European academic curriculum, 26, 44, 65
scientific model of, 32
European art training, 4, 17–19, 65, 68
Francophilia and, 17–18
nude models and, 16, 64. See also Paris
exercise, 24
“Exhibition of Perspective Views with Changeable Effects” (C. W. Peale indoor show), 9
Exhumation of the Mastodon, The (C. W. Peale), 11, 12, 14, 28, 34
Farrell, Kirby, 146
Female nude kneeling on table (Eakins photograph), 94, 95
female nudity, 16, 17, 17, 18, 36, 140, 141
Eakins’ photographs and, 1, 2, 4, 94, 97
full frontal, 78
idealized images of, 123
models and, 68, 72–73
pornographic photographs of, 91, 91, 93–94
feminism, 44, 45, 46, 110
Fenton, Beatrice, 158
Foote, Edward Bliss, 73
Forbes, William Smith, 5, 132–40
Anatomy Act and, 132, 134–35, 136, 149
career of, 135
Eakins’ portrait of, 132, 133, 149
scandal and trial of, 126, 137–40, 143
vindication of, 140, 145
fossils, 11, 12, 14
Foster, Kathleen A., 41, 59, 88, 122, 123, 127, 140, 141, 151
Foucault, Michel, 82, 106
The Birth of the Clinic, 51, 80
Fox, Daniel, 99
France: American Francophilia and, 17–18, 20–21, 130
Enlightenment and, 155
nude photographs and, 90–94, 95, 96, 99, 103
sexuality and, 18, 20–21, 27. See also Paris
Frankenstein (M. Shelley), 59
Franklin, Benjamin, 1–3, 5, 10, 11, 24
accomplishments of, 3, 9, 26
“Advice to a Young Man on the Choice of a Mistress,” 27, 160–61
changing social climate and, 27, 161
Enlightenment and, 155
French manners and, 20–21
grandson of, 25–26
indiscretions of, 1, 2, 3, 4, 23
on middle-class strength, 2, 150, 151, 154
freak shows, 53, 101, 102–3, 104, 105–6, 117, 122, 124–25
free love, 97, 145–46
“French letters,” 20
French Royal Academy, 16, 17
French Salon, 91
Freud, Sigmund, 44
Freudian theory, 42, 105, 108, 114
Fried, Michael, 42
Friends’ Central School (Philadelphia), 151, 155–56, 158
Friends’ School (Westtown, Pa.), 156
Frost, William, 155
Fussell, Bartholomew, 156
gay men. See homoeroticism; homosexuality
gender conventions: acceptable nude photographs and, 122–24
cultural constructions of, 111, 113, 145
dissection lab culture and, 76
Eakins’ photographic indifference to, 111, 123, 124
full frontal nudity and, 78
homosocial culture and, 48–49, 76, 114
male nude photographs and, 98, 122–23
male power hierarchy and, 110–11, 123, 124
medical training and, 44–52, 68–69, 72, 82–83
middle-class female conventions and, 131, 140, 145
public nudity and, 97
separate sphere and, 43, 74
voyeurism and, 123, 124
Wilde trial’s implications and, 145–46. See also sexism; women
General Tom. Thumb, wife & child (Brady photograph), 102, 102
genitalia: desexualization of penis and, 74, 75
Eakins’ controversies and, 77
fine art taboos and, 98
gay male erotic photographs and, 98
medical journal engraving of, 103
women viewers of male, 16, 69, 70, 72, 73, 74, 75, 78, 127, 131
George Cuvier (R. Peale), 11, 11
Gérard, François, 18
Gerdts, William, 94
German medical education, 44, 65
Gérôme, Jean-Léon, 21, 33, 90, 99, 110
students of, 126, 130
works: Cleopatra Before Caesar, 114
The Slave Market, 21, 21
Snake Charmer, 114
Getting Better: A Medical Student’s Story (Klein), 50
Gibson, Henry C., 137
Gilbert and Sullivan: Patience, 143
Gillespie, Mrs. (Eakins portrait subject), 157–58
Girard College, 26
“girl paintings,” 110, 111, 123
girls, 107–10, 123, 130
Gloeden, Baron Wilhelm von, 99, 147
Youths in grotto (photograph), 98, 98
Godley, Jesse, 105, 105
Goodbody, Bridget, 45, 46, 47
Goodrich, Lloyd, 157, 158, 160
Graham, Sylvester, 23–24, 25, 27, 110, 118
Graham cracker, 24
Graphics (R. Peale drawing book), 26–27, 60
grave-robbing, 134–39
Gray, Henry, 48
Gray’s Anatomy, 54, 62, 63, 64, 74, 75–76, 80, 105
pictorial conventions of, 103
Greek statuary. See classical themes
Greenewalt, Mary Hallock, 157
Gross, Samuel D., 102–3, 132, 157
Anatomy Act and, 136
on concept of beauty, 82
Eakins portrait of, 5, 13, 30, 42, 111, 149, 152
surgical clinic of, 31, 66
Gross, Samuel W., 46, 132
Gross Clinic, The (Eakins), 11, 13, 14, 28, 31, 36, 37, 57, 94, 123, 132, 149
Agnew Clinic contrasted with, 35, 46, 47
anatomical focus of, 52
as commentary on teaching and learning, 111
contrasts in, 35
controversy and, 30, 35, 46, 48, 52, 152
good reviews for, 158
sexual interpretation of, 42
Gustaf III, king of Sweden, 17
Guy, Seymour: Making a Train, 110–11, 111
Haines, Joseph, 155–56
Hallowell, William, 156
Hammitt, Lillian, 4
Harman, Moses, 146
Harrison, Benjamin, 136
Harrison, John Scott, 136
Harrison, William Henry, 136
Hart, John, 26–27
Hart, Sidney, 15
Harvard Medical School, 61, 66, 68
Harvard University, 115
Harvey, William: Opera Harveii, 149
Haseltine Gallery, 158
Hayes, Rutherford B., 157
Hendricks, Gordon, 121
Henry, Pauline, 47
Hesselius, Gustavus, 17
Heywood, Angela Fiducia Tilton, 146
Heywood, Ezra Hervey, 146
Hill, Patricia, 46
Hippocratic Oath, 45
History of Friends’ Central School, A (Haines), 155–56
Hogarth, William, 152
Holden, Luther, 64, 65
Holland, Dean, 157
Holmes, George, 91, 92
Holmes, Oliver Wendell, 75
Homan, Walter, 156
homoeroticism: male nude photographs and, 98, 98, 123
repression theories and, 44, 105, 114
Swimming and, 44, 49, 124, 147
homosexuality: Eakins linked with, 4, 5, 41–44, 49, 160
introduction of concept of, 43–44, 142
Wilde case and, 126, 142, 143–46, 147
homosocial culture, 48–49, 76, 114
Horowitz, Helen Lefkowitz, 20, 73
horses, 62, 88, 95, 156
motion photographs of, 115
Hoskins (H. G.) and Company, 94
hospitals, 3, 135
gender barriers and, 44–45, 47, 68–69, 72
“human curiosities” photographs, 102
humor, medical, 32–33, 34, 35, 76, 84
hysteria, 46
Independence Hall, 10
infrared reflectography, 86
Ingres, Jean-Auguste-Dominique, 90
“Inner Light” (Quaker concept), 156
Inness, George, 79, 82, 84, 114
inventions, 3, 4, 9, 89
Isaacson, Walter, 150, 155
Jacobs, Harry, 25
Jefferson, Thomas, 10, 19
Jefferson Hospital, 47
Jefferson Medical College, 5, 70, 101
body supply and, 65, 136–39
Eakins gallery of portraits at, 132, 149
Eakins’ lecture attendance at, 25, 31, 49, 55
Forbes’ association with, 135
Gross Clinic painting and, 11, 13, 14, 31, 48, 52
Keen’s portrait for, 84, 84
Mütter specimen collection and, 63
as professional role model, 66, 154
student racism and, 138–39
women students barred from, 68, 69
Johns, Elizabeth, 41–42, 49, 97, 124
Johns Hopkins Medical School, 116
John Wright nude, posing for George Reynolds at easel (Eakins photograph), 96
jokes. See humor, medical
Jones, Joseph, 49
Jordan, David Wilson, 156, 158
June, Jennie, 73
Jupiter and Io (R. Peale), 18, 19
Keen, William Williams, 31, 50, 54, 60, 135
accomplishments of, 55
anatomy studies and, 55, 58–64, 66, 67, 70, 75–76, 80, 85, 104–5, 113
anatomy textbook of, 59–60, 61–62, 99
Chase portrait of, 84, 84
Cleveland’s cancer surgery and, 53, 55
Eakins’ painting style and, 84
medical culture of, 76
medical humor and, 33, 34, 35
medical reforms and, 102–3
medical vs. artistic anatomy and, 105
professionalism of, 70
on surgical reforms, 66–67
as Woman’s Medical College lecturer, 69, 70
Kemp, Martin, 103
Kimock, Catherine, 54
kinematoscope, 89
Klass, Perri, 50, 51
Klein, Kenneth, 50
Knight, Daniel R., 64
Knitting (Eakins), 53, 122
Krafft-Ebing, Richard von, 43–44, 124
Lafayette, Marquis de, 10
Lancet (British medical journal), 103
Landgren, Marchal E., 73
“Landmarks: Medical and Surgical” (Holden), 64
Larkyns, Harry, 121
Lawrence, Christopher, 99
Lebanon cemetery (Philadelphia), 136, 138
LeBaron, Charles, 50–51
“Lecture on Delirium Tremens” (Vogdes), 24
“Lecture to Young Men, A” (Graham), 23
Lee, John G., 63
Leibold, Cheryl, 127
Levis, Richard J., 140
Lewis and Clark expedition, 11
Library Company of Philadelphia, 9
Liddell, Alice, 109
life classes: drawings for, 58–59
Eakins’ design for, 64, 70
Eakins scandal and, 126–32
prosecution threat against, 73–74
women’s separate admittance to, 59, 68, 70. See also models; nudity
“life studies.” See academies
light, outdoor nude photographs and, 96–97
Light-Bearer (journal), 146
Lincoln, Abraham, 93, 102
lion, dissection study of, 63, 63
Lippincott, Louise, 58
Lippincott (publisher), 119, 121
Lloyd, Edward, 16
London. See England
Long, Diana, 45
Long Room, Interior of Front Room in Peale’s Museum, The (C. W. Peale), 10, 11
Longshore, Joseph, 156
Lowell Institute (Boston), 58
Lubin, David, 46, 107, 110, 123
Lucifer (journal), 146
lynching, 138
McCauley, Anne, 99
Macdowell, Elizabeth (Lid), 72, 76, 130
Macdowell, Susan. See Eakins, Susan Macdowell
Macdowell, William, 158
McHenry, Margaret, 76, 154
MacKnight, Helen, 80
McNamee, Frank, 137, 138
Making a Train (Guy), 110–11, 111
Male Desire: The Homoerotic in American Art (Weinberg), 98
male nudity: academic photographs of, 91
desexualized penis and, 74, 75
Eakins’ ideal of, 37, 38, 39
fine art conventions for, 98
full frontal, 16, 75, 78
homoeroticism and, 98, 98, 123, 147
models and, 64–65, 72–73, 130
outdoor photographs of, 96–98, 103
photographed in traditional female poses, 98
Swimming and, 4, 39, 40, 41, 44, 49, 124, 147
women viewers of, 16, 59, 68–75, 123, 124, 127, 129, 131, 158
mammary glands, 48
Marconi, Gaudenzio, 90, 91, 96, 125
Eakins’ nude photographs contrasted with works of, 99
photographs: Nude couple posed in the classical idiom (probably imitating “The Rape of the Sabines”), 91, 96, 99
Nude with a bonnet, 91, 92
Marey, Etienne-Jules, 88, 117
Margaret Eakins and other figures on beach at Manasquan, New Jersey (Eakins photograph), 89, 89
marriage: Franklin on, 160–61
free love movement and, 146
nineteenth-century mores and, 43
sexual advice and, 24, 25
women’s career aims vs., 74, 83
Marshall, Clara, 45, 68
Marshall, John, 53
Mary Smith Prize, 158
mastodon, 11, 12, 14, 28
masturbation, 23–24, 25
May Morning in the Park, A (Eakins), 86, 87, 88, 116
Mayor, Carol, 110
Mécanisme de la physionomie humaine, ou, Analyse électro-physiologique de l’expression des passions (Duchenne de Boulogne), 104, 104
Mechanics’ Fair exhibition (Boston), 37
medical education: abnormalities and, 101, 101, 103
Agnew Clinic commission and, 28, 30, 32, 52
anatomy study and (see under anatomy)
anatomy study decline in, 78
autobiographical contemporary accounts of, 49–51
beauty and, 82
cadaver sources and, 134–39
competition for students and, 65–66
Eakins’ familiarity with, 25, 31, 49, 55, 131–32
economics of, 66, 135–36, 137, 139
European model of, 44, 65
faculty reforms and, 66
Forbes’ trial as defense of, 131, 134
homosocial tradition and, 48–49
human subjects and, 65
lecture/examination model of, 32
middle class and, 152
motion photography and, 117–18
“New Women” and, 76, 83
nursing and, 47
Philadelphia’s prominence in, 3, 31, 35, 136
pranks and jokes and, 32–33, 34, 35, 76, 84
Quakers and, 156
reforms in, 65, 66, 102–3
research model and, 116
women’s barriers to, 44–45, 49, 68–69, 72, 82–83
women’s medical schools and, 68, 74, 156
medical profession, 2
Eakins’ portrait series of, 5, 6, 7, 8, 13, 14, 28–30, 31, 132, 133, 136, 149, 156
as Eakins’ role models, 132, 134, 152, 157
esteem for Eakins by, 28, 35
Graham’s health ideas and, 22–23, 25
Gross’ ideal for, 157
homosexuality and, 44
macabre humor and, 32–33, 34, 35
nursing and, 46–47
Pennsylvania Academy founding and, 58
photography and, 99, 101–2, 103, 105, 106, 117–19
sexism and, 44–45. See also surgery
Melville, Herman: Billy Budd, 142
Meninas, Las (Velázquez), 52
mental deficiencies, 117
meritocracy, 4, 5–6, 156
Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York), 111
Michelangelo: Battle of Cascina, 97–98
middle class: Eakins and, 150–57
female body conventions and, 131, 140
Franklin and, 2, 150, 151, 154
meritocracy and, 4, 5–6, 156
Mileaf, Janine, 124
Miller, Leslie, 157–58
Miller, Lillian, 11, 15–16
Miller, T. Doughty, 138
Milliken, Fred H., 30, 30, 31, 34, 48
Mills, D. O., 114
Milroy, Elizabeth, 37, 39
misogyny, 45, 46, 48, 49
Miss Amelia C. Van Buren (Eakins), 80, 81, 82
Mitchell, S. Weir, 31
models, 72–73, 127
art students as, 65, 73, 123, 124, 127, 129, 130, 131, 141, 158
child nudes as, 110
for Crucifixion, 37, 39
Eakins and, 41, 70, 77, 152, 154, 157
Eakins as, 20, 123, 141
Eakins’ criteria for, 105
Eakins’ photographic poses of, 124
fees for, 64–65
gender balance in, 43, 72–73
male full nudity and, 16, 75, 78
nude academic photographs in place of, 90
Peale (Charles Willson) as, 16, 18, 23
problems finding, 16, 64–65. See also female nudity; male nudity
Montesquieu, Baron de la Brède et de, 155
moral hygiene, 24, 92
morality, 18, 19, 22–25
artistic “good taste” and, 79
Comstock laws and, 73–74, 79
Court of Death and, 22–23, 22, 24–25
photographic subversion and, 88
photographs of nudes and, 93–94
reformers and, 23–25, 27, 92, 93
1780s vs. 1880s and, 27. See also prudery
Morris, George, 80, 156
motion, portrayal of, 114–23, 156
Mount Vernon Street (Philadelphia), 127, 131, 140, 141, 151
“Moving Pictures” (C. W. Peale indoor show), 9
Munich, 44, 65
Murray, Samuel, 4, 9, 43
museums, 16, 18, 20, 21, 84, 102
Peale (Charles Willson) and, 9, 10–11, 15, 28, 105
Mütter, Thomas Dent, 53
Mütter Museum (Philadelphia), 53, 84, 102
Muybridge, Eadweard, 88, 114–23, 125, 132, 136
Animal Locomotion, 116, 117–21, 120, 122, 124
as con man, 120–21
Nabokov, Vladimir, 107
naked series (Eakins photographs), 103–5, 103, 107, 127
National Academy of Design, 55, 58, 77
Eakins’ election to, 149
Native Americans, 19, 105–6
natural history museums, 11, 18, 28
“New Woman,” 72, 74, 76, 83
New York City, 15, 16, 20, 59, 65
anti-obscenity campaign and, 73
Eakins’ paintings and, 34–35, 37
Eakins’ teaching post in, 55, 77–78
New Yorker, 86
New York Herald, 34–35
New York Society for the Suppression of Vice, 73
New York Times, 116, 119–20
Nickel, Douglas R., 107, 108, 110
Niépce, Joseph-Nicéphore, 86
Nightingale Medal, 47
Nochlin, Linda, 113–14
“Notes—Harmonies—Nocturnes” (Whistler exhibition), 154
Nude couple posed in the classical idiom (probably imitating “The Rape of the Sabines”) (Marconi photograph), 91, 96, 99
Nude female, reclining, from rear (Braquehais photograph), 93, 93
Nude with a bonnet (Marconi photograph), 91, 92
nudity: American visual culture and, 15–20, 73, 98
art students’ mixed-class viewing of, 16, 75, 85, 124, 129, 130, 158
child photographs and, 7, 94, 106, 108, 110, 111, 113–14, 119, 120
Comstock laws and, 121
Eakins’ anatomical focus and, 35–41, 46, 55, 58–59, 72, 77, 103, 103, 124
Eakins circle photographs of, 83, 85, 94–99, 122, 124
Eakins’ desexualization of, 129
Eakins’ non-style photographs of, 103–5, 103
Eakins’ personal preference for, 41
Eakins scandals and, 1, 2, 4, 16, 41, 55, 75, 83–84, 119, 126, 128, 140, 141
Eakins’ subversion of, 123
“false modesty” and, 146, 147
first great Renaissance work and, 98
French attitudes toward, 18, 21, 27
French photographs of, 90–94, 95, 96, 101, 122, 125
full frontal, 16, 75, 78, 91, 98–99
gender image conventions and, 123
idealized vs. realistic image of, 114, 123
Inness’ aesthetic of, 79
male vs. female, 78
medical desexualization of, 50–51, 74, 75
moralizing paintings of, 18
Muybridge photographs of, 119–24, 132, 136
obscenity charges and, 18
Peale family artworks and, 15–19
public exhibitions of artworks portraying, 16, 19–20
salaciousness and, 20, 21, 91
same-sex conventions and, 43, 97, 147
sexual vs. anatomical view of, 124
student-teacher, 1, 2, 4, 41, 129, 141
surgery depictions and, 28, 29, 35, 36, 46, 47–48
taboos against, 72, 73, 74, 98, 124
voyeurism and, 91, 93–94, 95, 122–24
women’s separate viewing of, 16, 59, 68, 70, 72
women viewers of, 16, 68–75, 123, 124, 127, 129, 131, 158. See also female nudity; life classes; male nudity; models
nurses, 46–47
Nymphs and Satyr (Bouguereau), 94
obscenity laws, 18, 20, 27, 83
aesthetics and, 79
Comstock prosecutions and, 73–74, 121
nude photographs and, 90. See also pornography
Olympia Galleries, 122
“On the Systematic Use of the Living Model as a Means of Illustration in teaching Anatomy” (Keen), 63
Opera Harveii (Harvey), 149
Pancoast, Joseph, 31
Pancoast, William H., 31–32, 32, 48
Panic of 1819, 21
Paris: academic nude photographs and, 90–94, 95
artwork nudity and, 17
cost of nude models in, 64
Eakins’ art studies in, 4, 21, 31, 39, 55, 82, 89–90, 91–92, 110, 130, 152
importance of art training in, 17, 18, 20, 65
medical studies in, 65
surgical clinics in, 31
Paschall, Douglass, 103
pathologies, photographic documentation of, 101, 101, 117–19, 125
Patience (Gilbert and Sullivan), 143
patriotism, 5, 10, 11, 150, 161
Paulus, Francis Petrus, 58
Peale, Charles Willson, 1–6, 14–19, 25, 36, 78
art class modeling and, 16, 18, 23
art institutions and, 15, 27, 58
background of, 3, 4
contributions of, 10–11
experimental inventions of, 9
Franklin compared with, 1, 155
grandson of, 89
many children of, 4, 5, 19, 27
museum goals of, 9, 10–11, 15, 28, 105
nudity and, 16, 17, 18, 19
patriotism of, 5, 11
personal life of, 4
portrait series by, 1, 6, 6, 11, 14–15
scientific subjects and, 11, 13, 14, 26
work ethic of, 9
works: The Artist in His Museum, 14, 15
The Exhumation of the Mastodon, 11, 12, 14, 28, 34
The Long Room, Interior of Front Room in Peale’s Museum, 10, 11
Portrait of David Rittenhouse, 6, 6
Scandalous Sketch of B. Franklin and Young Woman, 1, 3
Venus Rising from the Sea, 16
Peale, Rembrandt, 2, 3, 16–25, 27, 78, 129, 130
art curriculum and, 9, 26
art gallery of, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21–22
drawing book of, 26–27, 60
moralizing message painting of, 21–23, 24–25
nudity and, 15–16, 17, 18–19, 20, 21
works: The Court of Death, 22–23, 22, 24–25
Dream of Love, 20
George Cuvier, 11, 11
Jupiter and 10, 18, 19
The Roman Daughter, 18, 18, 22, 27, 91
Peale, Rubens, 19
Peale’s Museum (Philadelphia Museum), 9, 10–11, 10, 15
Peitzman, Steven J., 156
Pelham, Peter, 57
pelvis, anatomical importance of, 75, 77
penis. See genitalia
“Penis Literature” (A. Heywood), 146
Pennell, Joseph, 73
Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts, 43, 70, 123, 124, 127–28
African-American student at, 157
Agnew Clinic’s rejection by, 34
alternative academy to, 128
anatomy program of, 15, 55, 57, 58–59, 62, 78–79, 84, 104, 136
Coates and, 122
course catalogue of, 59
critics of, 78–79, 84
curricular innovations of, 58–64, 66, 116, 117, 154
dissection classes and, 62, 63, 69, 76, 139
Eakins’ critics and, 78–79, 80, 84
Eakins as juror for, 149
Eakins’ career at, 10, 15, 54–55, 57–58, 66, 88, 115
Eakins circle nudity and, 1, 2, 4, 16, 94–96, 99
Eakins’ dismissal from, 16, 21, 52, 55, 67–68, 75, 77, 84, 85, 119, 121, 122, 126–29, 131
Eakins’ dissection drawings and, 53–54
faculty concept and, 66
founding of, 15
life-class models and, 64–65
medical education paradigm for, 132
medical humor and pranks at, 76
obscenity law and, 74
photograph collection and, 89, 94–96, 99
Rogers and, 115, 116, 154
Swimming and, 28, 39, 41
tuition fees of, 66
women’s status at, 16, 68, 69, 70, 72, 83, 124, 158
Pennsylvania Hospital, 44–45, 68–69, 135
first coeducational day at, 69
Pepper, William, 116, 117, 118, 119
perspective, 9, 26, 86, 88, 114
Philadelphia, 1–4, 5, 10–11, 20, 22, 105
art institutions and, 15–16, 17, 20, 27, 35, 39, 65, 115, 130
artists’ anatomy training and, 58–60
artist-scientist tradition of, 2, 27
body snatching and, 136–38
Centennial Exhibition of, 14, 15, 28, 52, 123, 158
cultural “firsts” of, 9
Eakins’ family home in, 127, 131, 140, 141, 151
Eakins family’s social place in, 150–51
Eakins’ middle-class painting subjects from, 153–54
Eakins’ vs. Muybridge’s status in, 121, 122
historical importance of, 2–3, 9
medical vs. artistic community in, 35
photographic community of, 89
photographs of nudes and, 93–94
prominent medical professors in, 31
public education in, 3–4, 24–25
as Quaker city, 155, 156
racial clash in, 137, 138
scientific heroes of, 26, 28
social attitudes and, 2–3, 23, 24, 27
Wilde trial press accounts in, 142–45, 146
women medical students and, 68–69
Philadelphia Art Students’ League. See Art Students’ League of Philadelphia
Philadelphia Daily Evening Telegraph, 34
Philadelphia Evening Bulletin, 126, 128, 129, 143–44, 145
Philadelphia Evening Item, 126–27, 128, 129
Philadelphia Inquirer, 138–39, 144
Philadelphia Museum (Peale’s Museum), 9, 10–11, 10, 15
Philadelphia Museum of Art, 53
Philadelphia Photographer (journal), 114
Philadelphia Press, 128–29, 136–37, 139, 144
Philadelphia School of Anatomy, 31, 55, 66, 135
Philadelphia School of Design for Women, 82
Philadelphia Sketch Club, 130, 131
Philadelphia Times, 77, 144, 145
photography, 9, 86–125
academic nudes and, 90–94, 95, 96, 99, 101, 125
anthropological, 106
artists’ concerns about, 86, 88
child nudes and, 94, 107–10, 113, 114
of deformities, 101–2, 101, 102
Eakins’ image transfers from, 86, 88
Eakins’ nude studies and, 1, 2, 83, 85, 94–98, 99, 127–28
Eakins’ revolutionary approach to, 124
family subjects of, 88–89, 88, 89
furtive uses of, 88
grid background and, 106, 120
homoerotic images and, 98, 98, 123
medical non-style of, 103–5, 106, 117, 118
medical use of, 99, 101–2, 103, 117–18, 132
motion experiments with, 114–23, 156
nude life studies and, 90–94, 99
outdoor male nudity and, 96–97
portrait, 102
Swimmers and, 41, 42, 42, 43
Victorian preferences in, 124–25
physicians. See medical profession
Physiology of Marriage, The (Alcott), 25
Picture of Dorian Gray, The (Wilde), 143, 144, 147–48
Picturing a Nation (Lubin), 107
plaster casts, 58
“Plate VII. Venous Tumor” (photograph), 101, 101
Plato, 41, 42
Police Gazette, 20
pornography: gay male photographs and, 98, 98
nineteenth-century images of, 20
photographic nudes and, 90–91, 93–94, 99, 124, 125
stock images of, 121, 123. See also obscenity laws; voyeurism
Porteus, Beilby, 22
Portrait of Benjamin Howard Rand, M.D. (Eakins), 6, 7, 149
Portrait of David Rittenhouse (C. W. Peale), 6, 6
Portrait of Mary Adeline Williams (Eakins), 55, 56
Portrait of Professor Henry A. Rowland (Eakins), 6, 8
portraiture: Eakins’ anatomical correctness and, 55
Eakins’ medical-scientist series of, 5, 6, 7, 8, 13, 14, 28, 31, 132, 133, 136, 149, 156
Eakins’ realism and, 80, 82, 84, 146, 148–49, 157–58
Eakins’ sports subjects and, 35
Peales and, 1, 3, 4, 6, 6, 11, 14–15
postal service, 73
postcards: freak show, 102
nudes, 90, 98
Première pose, La (Roberts), 123, 123
“Present Opprobrium of Surgery, The: The Agnew Clinic and Nineteenth-Century Representations of Cancerous Female Breasts” (Goodbody), 45
Preston, Ann, 69
Prown, Jules, 111
prudery, 18, 19, 27, 73, 77, 78, 83, 84, 145, 147
Psychopathia Sexualis (Krafft-Ebing), 43–44
public institutions, 3–4, 9, 24–27
Quakers, 3, 5, 150, 154–56, 157, 158
Queensbury, Marquess of, 142, 143, 144, 147
Rabelais, François, 124
racial tensions, 137, 138–39, 140, 142
racial types, 106–7, 107, 125
Rand, Benjamin Howard, 5, 6, 7, 31, 132, 149
Rape of the Sabines (Marconi photograph), 91, 96, 99
realism: Eakins’ portraits and, 80, 82, 84, 148–49, 157–58
Inness’ argument against, 79
nude images and, 114
photography and, 88
reform movement, 23–25
religion, 22, 23, 27, 37, 39
“Rembrandt’s Apollodorian Gallery,” 17
Renaissance art, 6, 98
Renty, Frontal (Zealy daguerreotype), 106, 106
Report on Education in Europe (Bache), 26
Revolutionary War, 5, 9, 17, 21
Reynolds, George, 41, 96
Richards, William Trost, 26
Richardson, Edgar, 14
Rimmer, William, 61, 62, 63
Art Anatomy, 58, 60, 61
Rittenhouse, David, 5, 6, 6
Roberts, Howard, 152
La Première pose, 123, 123
Robinson, Charlie, 137
Robinson, Henry, 20
Rogers, Fairman, 43, 55, 59, 62, 66, 72, 88
on anatomical importance of pelvis and spine, 75
background of, 115
as Eakins’ patron, 115–16
on Pennsylvania Academy’s curriculum, 154
Roman Daughter, The (R. Peale), 18, 18, 22, 27, 91
Roman statuary. See classical themes
romanticism, 33–34
Roosevelt, Theodore, 146
Rousseau, Jean-Jacques, 155
rowing portraits, 35, 36
Rowland, Henry, 6, 8
Royal Academy, 16, 17
Rubens, Peter Paul, 17, 39
Rush, Benjamin, 6, 26
Rush, William, 65, 79, 79, 98–99, 100
Ruskin, John, 33, 34, 82
same-sex friendships, 43, 97, 114, 147
Sappol, Michael, 51, 68, 76
Sartain, Emily, 4, 82, 130, 160
Sartain, John, 64, 130
Sartain, William, 64
Saslow, James, 147
Saturday Evening Post, 53
scandals, 55, 126–49
Scandalous Sketch of B. Franklin and Young Woman (C. W. Peale), 1, 3
Schmitt, Max, 35, 36
School of Industrial Arts (Philadelphia), 119
Schussele, Christian, 55, 57, 58, 68
Schuylkill River, 35, 36
science: artist tradition of, 2, 27, 78
Central High School’s emphasis on, 26
Eakins circle photographs and, 95
Franklin and, 2, 9
Peale (Charles Willson) and, 10–11, 14
Philadelphia Quakers and, 156
portraiture and, 5–9
research emphasis of, 32
romanticism vs., 33–34. See also medical education; medical profession
Scots Observer, 147
Scott, James, 122
Scribner’s Monthly, 59, 67
Sedgwick, Eve Kosofsky, 49, 142
Self-Portrait (Eakins), 148, 149
Sellers, Anna, 72
Sellers, Charles Coleman (1903–80), 4, 5, 15, 18, 155
Sellers, Coleman (1827–1907), 89
sexism: Eakins and, 82
male power and, 110–11, 123
medical education and, 44–45, 47, 52, 68–69. See also misogyny
sex manuals, 24
sexuality: anatomical images vs., 124
“bachelor’s pictures” and, 93, 94
coded vs. open language and, 84, 142, 143, 144, 146
Eakins and, 2, 4, 23, 24, 41–43, 49, 141–42
erotic materials and, 94, 124
female nude modeling and, 140
female nude paintings and, 36
French attitude and, 18, 20–21, 27, 91
Franklin and, 1, 4, 27, 160–61
free love movement and, 145–46
historical context of, 113–14, 142
Krafft-Ebing work on, 43–44
male nude photographs and, 98, 98, 123
medical desexualization and, 50–51, 75
obscenity charges and, 18, 20, 73–74
Peale (Charles Willson) and, 4
popular treatises on, 25
prepubescent girls and, 107–10
reformer repression of, 23–24, 25, 27
voyeurism and, 91, 93–94, 95, 121–24
Wilde case and, 142–48. See also homoeroticism; homosexuality; pornography; prudery
Sharp, Benjamin, 156
Shelley, Edward, 144
Shelley, Mary, 59
Siamese twins, 53, 102
Singing a Pathetic Song (Eakins), 41, 122
Six males, nude, two wrestling at right (Eakins photograph), 41
Slave Market, The (Gérôme), 21, 21
Smibert, John, 17
Smith, John Rubens, 62, 63, 99, 104
Compendium of Picturesque Anatomy, Adapted to the Arts of Design, Painting, Sculpture, and Engraving, 60–61, 61
Smith, Margaret Supplee, 34
Smith, T. Guilford, 31
Smith-Rosenberg, Carroll, 43, 72, 74
Snake Charmer (Gérôme), 114
social attitudes: body portrayal conventions and, 122–23, 131–32, 137, 140
body snatching and, 136–39
child nudity images and, 107, 113–14
class and race conventions and, 122, 137–39, 140
discussions of sexuality and, 142, 143, 144, 146
Eakins’ background and, 150, 152, 154
homosexuality and, 145
late-nineteenth-century nudity debate and, 73
male vs. female frontal nudity and, 78
male power and, 110–11, 123, 124
middle-class women and, 131, 140
of mid-nineteenth century, 23–24, 27
of nineteenth-century vs. current, 39, 41–43, 44, 45, 49
photographic nudes and, 94, 99, 122–30
same-sex friendships and, 43, 44
of 1780s vs. 1880s, 2, 24, 27, 160–61
unconventional behavior and, 145. See also gender conventions; middle class; morality; Victorian culture
Society of American Artists, 34–35, 37
Society of Friends. See Quakers
Society of Artists of the United States, 16
sodomy, 142, 143, 144, 147
Spain, 39
Spanish Baroque, 39
spine, 75, 104–5, 105, 113
Spinning (Eakins), 53, 54, 122
Spitzka, Edward Anthony, 5, 84, 85
sports. See athletes
Stanford, Leland, 115
Stanford University, 115, 121
Stephens, Alice Barber, 76, 127, 130
The Women’s Life Class, 71
Stephens, Caroline Eakins, 127, 131, 141
Stephens, Charles H., 63, 127, 130
Anatomical Lecture by Dr. William Williams Keen, 59, 60
Stephens, Frank, 127–28, 130–31, 140
sterilization, surgical, 47, 66–67
Strahan, Edward, 114
Stuart, Gilbert, 60
“Study of the Brains of Six Eminent Scientists and Scholars Belonging to the American Anthropometric Society, A” (Spitzka), 84
surgery: antisepsis reforms and, 46–47, 66–67
for cancer, 28, 35, 36, 45–46, 47, 53, 55, 101
desegregated viewing of, 49
Eakins’ paintings of, 11, 13, 14, 28–30, 29, 34, 36, 42, 46, 48–49
feminist criticism and, 45
nineteenth-century approach to, 31, 46
Nurse Clymer’s notes on, 47
women medical students’ restricted access to, 69, 72
Swedish Art Academy, 17
Swimming (Eakins), 4, 28, 36, 39–43, 40, 46, 122, 126
anatomical training and, 39, 41, 49, 51
homoeroticism and, 44, 49, 124, 147
as marking end of era, 43
nineteenth-century vs. current context for, 39, 41–43, 44, 45, 49
photographic image transfer and, 86
preparatory photographs for, 96, 97
thematic precedents for, 97–98
women viewers of, 124
Tadd, J. Liberty, 119
Talbot, William Henry Fox, 86
Tanner, Henry Ossawa, 156–57
textbooks: anatomy, 60–62, 63–64, 75–76, 99, 149
faculty sale of, 66, 135
moral hygiene, 92
Thayer, Abbott, 36
Thomas Eakins at about age thirty-five, leaning against fence (Susan Eakins photograph), 89, 90
Thomas Eakins nude, holding nude female in his arms, looking down (circle of Thomas Eakins photograph), 1, 2
Thomas Eakins nude, semireclining on couch, from rear (circle of Thomas Eakins photograph), 95, 95
Thomas Eakins nude and J. Laurie Wallace nude, from rear, in front of boat at shoreline (circle of Thomas Eakins photograph), 97, 97
Thomson, Gertrude, 108
Thomson, William S., 5
Three Crowell boys nude, in creek at Avondale, Pennsylvania (Eakins photograph), 108
Thumb, Tom and Lavinia, 102, 102
Titian, 17
Tousley, Captain, 93
Townsend, George Alfred, 25
Trachtenberg, Alan, 106
Training School for Nurses (Hospital of the University of Pennsylvania), 47
Transactions of the International Medical Congress, 63
Treatise on the Principles and Practices of Surgery (Agnew), 46
“Triumphal Arch” (Philadelphia), 9
“Twenty-Eight Young Men” (Whitman), 41–42
Union League Club, 157
Unitarianism, 22
University of Pennsylvania, 5, 9, 62, 115
University of Pennsylvania Hospital, 47
University of Pennsylvania Medical College, 28, 31, 65, 135, 139
Agnew Clinic painting and, 28, 34, 52
dissection room of, 48, 49
Muybridge’s photographic experiments at, 116, 117–21, 122, 123
as professional role model, 66
sexism and, 44–45, 68, 69
University of Virginia, 135
Van Buren, Amelia, 75, 76, 80, 81, 82, 83, 127
Van Der Gracht, Jacob, 57
Vanderlyn, John, 16, 20, 21, 64, 130
Ariadne Asleep on the Island of Naxos, 17
Van Rensselaer, Mariana Griswold, 37
Velázquez, Diego, 39
Las Meninas, 52
Venus Rising from the Sea (C. W. Peale), 16
Victorian culture: childhood innocence belief and, 107, 110, 114
Eakins’ clash with, 150
macabre and, 105
popular subjects of images and, 124–25
prudery and, 146, 147
repression and, 110
Wilde trial and, 145–46
Vogdes, E. W. (Reddy), 24, 27, 92, 119
voyeurism, 91, 93–94, 95
gender and, 123, 124
Muybridge’s images and, 121
nineteenth-century rules of, 122
Wallace, J. Laurie, 37, 39, 41, 43, 97, 98, 105, 105, 119
Ward, David C., 4, 15
Washington, George, 10
Washington Museum (Philadelphia), 20, 21
Waugh, Thomas, 90, 91, 98, 123
Wayland, Francis, 92–93, 119
The Elements of Moral Science, 92
Weinberg, Jonathan, 97, 98, 124
Male Desire: The Homoerotic in American Art, 98
Wertmüller, Adolf Ulrik, 16–17, 18, 20
Danaë and the Shower of Gold, 17, 17
West, Benjamin, 4
Whipple, H. C., 122
Whistler, James McNeill, 154
White, J. William, 30, 44, 45, 46, 84, 140
Whitman, Walt, 41–42, 84, 85, 97, 122
“Twenty-Eight Young Men,” 41–42
Wilde, Constance, 146
Wilde, Oscar, 126, 142–48, 149
American celebrity of, 143
libel suit of, 143–44
The Picture of Dorian Gray, 143, 144, 147–48
trial and conviction of, 144–45, 147
William Rush and His Model (Eakins), 98–99, 100
William Rush Carving His Allegorical Figure of the Schuylkill River (Eakins), 79, 79
Williams, Mary Adeline, 55, 56
William Smith Forbes (Eakins), 132, 133, 149
William Williams Keen, Jr. (Chase), 84, 84
Wistar, Caspar, 65, 135
Woman in a Plaid Shawl (Susan Eakins), 159, 159
“Woman pouring a bucket of water over another woman” (Muybridge plate), 120
Woman’s Art School (Cooper Union), 55
Woman’s Hospital (Philadelphia), 47, 69
Woman’s Medical College of Pennsylvania, 45, 68, 69, 70, 72, 83
Quaker founding of, 156
women: Agnew Clinic depiction of, 28, 29, 46, 47, 49
as art students, 4, 16, 52, 68, 69, 70, 72, 73, 75, 83, 84, 124, 129, 158
careers for, 74, 83
coeducational art class nudity and, 16, 74, 85, 124, 127, 129, 130, 158
as decorative objects, 82
delicate sensibilities ascribed to, 34, 35, 68, 72, 129
dissection labs and, 68, 69, 70, 72, 74, 75, 76, 129
Eakins’ approach to nudity and, 1, 2, 4–5, 16
Eakins’ egalitarianism and, 15, 16, 49, 52, 68, 69, 70, 72–73, 75, 76, 85, 129, 156
in Eakins’ inner circle, 124
Eakins’ scandals and, 1, 2, 126–32, 140–42, 146–47, 160
Eakins’ view of, 82–83
educational access for, 68, 70, 72, 74, 75, 82–83, 129
girls differentiated from, 123, 130
idealized sexualized paintings of, 36
identical education as goal of, 74, 75
male genitalia viewing by, 69, 70, 72, 73, 74, 75, 78, 127, 131
medical anatomical description and, 48
medical sexism and, 44–45, 47, 52, 68–70
as medical students, 44–45, 49, 68
museum admission for, 15
“New Woman” ideal of, 72, 74, 76, 83
nude photographs of, 1, 2, 91–92, 122, 127
pornographic stock images of, 121
prepubescent images of, 107–10, 109, 111
professional privileges for, 83
segregated viewing of nude models by, 16, 59, 68, 70, 72
self-sufficiency and, 83
separate educational opportunities for, 68, 69, 70, 72
separate sphere vs. equal opportunity ideology and, 43, 74, 82–83
sexuality and, 24, 36, 71–72, 140
“socially questionable” aims of, 74. See also female nudity; gender conventions
Women’s Life Class, The (A. B. Stephens), 71
Wood, Horatio C., 156
Word, The (journal), 146
World’s Columbian Exhibition (Chicago, 1893), 34
Wright, John, 96
Writing Master (Portrait of Benjamin Eakins), The (Eakins), 152, 155, 155–56
Yale Medical School, 68
Youths in grotto (Gloeden photograph), 98
Zealy, J. T., 106
Renty, Frontal (daguerreotype), 106
zoetrope, 115
Index