Glossary of Roman Woodworking Terms

Ulrich, Roger B.

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Glossary of Roman Woodworking Terms

Roger B. Ulrich

Roman Woodworking

Glossary of Roman Woodworking Terms

Author

Roger B. Ulrich

PublisherYale University Press

https://doi.org/10.37862/aaeportal.00107.017

Stable URL: https://aaeportal.com/?id=-18403

Glossary of Roman Woodworking Terms

Contents

I.	General Woodworking Terms
II.	Areas of Specialization
III.	Tools
IV.	Joints
		IV.1.	General Terms
		IV.2.	Technical Terms, Methods, and Fasteners of Wooden Joinery
V.	Foundations
		V.1.	General Terms
		V.2.	Technical Terms
VI.	Framing
VII.	Flooring
VIII.	Roofing and Ceilings
		VIII.1.	General Terms
		VIII.2.	Technical Terms
IX.	Interior Woodwork
		IX.1.	Definition of opus intestinum
		IX.2.	Technical Terms
		IX.3.	Doors and Shutters
X.	Wheels
XI.	Furniture
		XI.1.	General Comments
		XI.2.	Beds and Couches
		XI.3.	Boxes, Chests, Cupboards, Containers
		XI.4.	Chairs, Benches, Footstools
		XI.5.	Tables
		XI.6.	Miscellaneous Household Furnishings
XII.	Trees and Timber
		XII.1.	Parts of Trees, Types of Timber
		XII.2.	Species of Trees used by Roman Woodworkers
		XII.3.	Drying, Preservatives, and Conditioners
XIII.	Harvesting of Trees
		XIII.1	Best Conditions for Felling
		XIII.2	Felling and Rough Cutting
XIV.	Finished Lumber: General Terms for Planks and Boards
XV.	Roman Linear Measurements Used by Woodworkers and Architects

Introduction

Individual terms in the glossary generally correspond in order of presentation to the discussion in the main text. Thus chapter 8, “Roofing and Ceilings,” in the main text is complemented in the glossary under section VIII. Whenever possible the definitions of terms are located under the appropriate Latin word. If the Latin term is not known, the definition can be found under its English name. Each term is defined with a selection of Latin passages. The abbreviations of ancient authors follow those used in the Oxford Classical Dictionary. The English translations of the Latin passages are based upon those used in the Loeb Classical Library unless otherwise noted.

Individual entries in the glossary generally adhere to the following format:

(1) Plin. Epist. 5.6.38: (2) (Pliny’s country villa): (3) there is a bed here [in the alcove] and windows on all sides” (4) (lectus hic et undique fenestrae).

1. Plin. Epist. 5.6.38: the location of the ancient passage;
2. (Pliny’s country villa): a brief context for the passage;
3. [in the alcove]: words in brackets within the English translation have been supplied so that the passage makes better sense. These are usually based upon interpretation of specific words or phrases from neighboring lines in the ancient source;
4. lectus hic et undique fenestrae: the Latin text.

I. General Woodworking Terms

ars fabrica: the art or skill of making something: craft, art, or structure. The exact meaning depends upon context, as indicated by the following example:

Plin. HN 16.225: “Fir wood is very suitable . . . for the panels of folding doors and any kind of interior work whether in the Greek or the Campanian or the Sicilian manner of the craft” (abies . . . valvarum paginis et ad quaecumque libeat intestina opera aptissima, sive Graeco sive Campano sive Siculo fabricae artis genere).

There is not enough evidence to suggest how one type or style of carpentry differs from another. This passage may indicate either a difference in decorative style, proportion, or a variation of technique. Cato (Rust. 18.9) also refers to the Punic method (here the style may refer specifically to wheel construction using dovetailed planks instead of spokes and felloes). For this passage, see coagmentum under “IV. Joints.”

ars fabrilis: carpentry, woodwork. See also, in this section, materiarius, materiatio, opus fabrile, and secamentum.

carpenter: see faber carpentarius, faber tignarius, lignarius, and tignarius under “II. Areas of Specialization.”

carpentry: see, in this section, ars fabrilis, materiarius, materiatio, opus fabrile, and secamentum.

fabrica materiaria: see, in this section, materiarius.

firewood: see, in this section, lignum.

lignator -oris (m.): a collector of firewood. Thus the verb lignor -ari: to collect firewood.

Caes. BGall. 5.26.2: “after the [detachments of ] wood gatherers had been unexpectedly overwhelmed they [the enemy] came to attack the camp with a large force” (subitoque oppressis lignatoribus magna manu ad castra oppugnatum venerunt).

ligneolus -a -um (adj.): something made of wood.

Apul. Mun. 27: “wooden figures of men” (in ligneolis hominum figuris).
Lucil. 224: “a wooden tray” (scutam ligneolam).

See also, in this section, tuber.

nodus -i (m.): a knot. Knot-free (or clear) timber is described as enodus.

Plin. HN 16.196: “the part of the fir tree that was near the ground is knot-free” (abietis quae pars a terra fuit enodis est).

pando -are (vb.): to warp or sag, or to cause to warp.

Vitr. 2.9.11 (elm and ash beams in construction): for text and translation see coagmentum under “IV. Joints.”

Vitr. 6.8.2: for the text and translation of this passage see “postis” under “VI. Framing.”

roundwood: wood that has been used as found. Usually in prehistoric applications, but also in construction where the woodwork will be hidden.

sappineus -a -um (adj.): adjective referring to the choicest clear-grained wood from a tree.

Vitr. 2.9.7 (used for interior woodwork): for text and translation see opus intestinum under section IX.1.

stipes -itis (m.): the trunk of a tree or its lower part (sometimes merely the stump).

Verg. Aen. 4.444: “and the high leafy boughs blanket the ground when the trunk is buffeted” (et altae / consternunt terram concusso stipite frondes).

See also this term under “VI. Framing.”

torqueo -ere: to warp.

Vitr. 2.9.8: “[the oak] shrinking from moisture . . . becomes warped ([quercus] fugiens ab umore . . . torquetur).

torulus -i (m.): the moist layer of outer wood in the trunk of a tree, which surrounds the heartwood. Vitruvius uses both the terms medulla (q.v.) and torulus to refer to what is often called sapwood. Possibly the latter refers to the outer layer of wood which contains knots.

Vitr. 2.9.7: “the torulus is removed . . . from the tree” (eiectotorulo . . . arbore).

At issue here is the use of clear heartwood sappinea (q.v.) for inside (fine) woodwork. Cf. also Vitr. 2.9.3.

truncus -i (m.): the trunk of a tree.

Caes. BGall. 4.17 (concerning Caesar’s bridge over the Rhine): “trunks of trees” (arborum trunci).

For full text and translation see chapter 5 of the text.

Varro Rust. 1.14.2 (on the construction of a primitive fence): “tree trunks placed one after another, [with the trimmed branches] driven into the ground” (ex arboribus truncis demissis in terram deinceps constitutis).

trunk: see, in this section, arbor, stipes, truncus.

tuber -eris (n.): a swelling or growth. On a tree, a burl, of which specific types are mentioned: e.g., bruscum (q.v.), molluscum (q.v.).

Plin. HN 16.68: for text and translation see, in this section, bruscum.

vena -ae (f.): a vein or fiber in wood making up the grain.

Plin. HN 226: for text and translation see lamina under “IX. Interior Woodwork.”

warp: see, in this section, pando, torqueo.

XII.2. SPECIES OF TREES USED BY ROMAN WOODWORKERS

abies -etis (f.): fir. The most common species in Italy is Abies alba, or silver fir.

Plin. HN 16.35: “the bark of the beech, the linden, the fir, and the pitch pine is commonly used by country folk. With it they fashion baskets and wider vessels for carrying crops and grapes and for the shingling of country cottages” (cortex et fagi, tiliae, abietis, piceae, in magno usu agrestium. vasa eo corbesque ac patentiora quaedam messibus convehendis vindemiisque faciunt atque proiecta tuguriorum).

Plin. HN 16.42: “a first rate timber [for shipbuilding] . . . beams, and many household objects” (materies vero praecipua . . . trabibus et plurimus vitae operibus).

Plin. HN 16.48: (qualities of “male” vs. “female” firs): for text and translation see arbor in “XII.1. Parts of Trees.”

Plin. HN 16.195(1): “[along with the larch] the tallest and straightest of all trees” (omnium arborum altissimae ac rectissimae).

Plin. HN 16.195(2): “for the masts and spars of ships fir is preferred because of its light weight” (navium malis antemnisque propter levitem praefertur abies).

Plin. HN 16.195(3): for text and translation see nodus under “XII.1. Parts of Trees.”

Plin. HN 16.222: “fir and larch are strong load-bearers, even when placed horizontally” (pondus sustinere validae abies, larix, etiam in traversum positae).

Plin. HN 16.225: “fir is strongest in a vertical position; it is suitable for the panels of folding doors and any kinds of inlay work . . . of all sorts of wood it is most adapted for being glued together, so much so that it will split at a solid place before it parts at a join” (firmissima in rectum abies, eadem valvarum paginis et ad quaecumque libeat intestina opera aptissima . . . eadem e cunctis maxime sociabilis glutino, in tantum ut findatur ante qua solida est).

Sen. Ep. 90.9 (transport of firs for building): for text and translation see lacunar under “VIII. Roofing and Ceilings.”

Vitr. 2.9.6: “[fir] remains straight (i.e., without warping) in flooring” (directa permanet in contignatione).

See also contignatio under “VII. Flooring.”

acer -ris (n.): maple.

Plin. HN 16.66: “the maple . . . is second only to the citrus for woodcraft in terms of its elegance and fine grain. It is of several types: the white maple, for its notable light-hued wood, is called Gallic maple . . . the second kind, with markings running in wavy lines, . . . has received the name ‘peacock (maple)’” (acer . . . operum elegantia ac subtilitate citro secundum. plura eius genera: album, quod praecipui candoris, vocatur Gallicum . . . alterum genus crispo macularum discursu . . . pavonum nomen accepit).

Plin. HN 16.68 (the burls on the maple): for text and translation see bruscum under “XII.1. Parts of Trees.”

Plin. HN 16.231 (veneer): for text and translation see lamina under “IX.2 Interior Woodwork.”

See also, in this section, zygia and carpinus.

acernus -a -um (adj.): belonging to the maple tree, made of maple wood.

Hor. Sat. 2.8.10: for text and translation, see, mensa under “XI.5. Tables.”

Ovid Ars Am. I.325: “the cow [made for Queen Pasiphae by Daedalus of Crete was made] of maple wood (vacca . . . acerna).

Prop. 4.4.7 (Propertius imagines that the camp of the Sabine king Tatius was protected): “by a maple palisade” (vallo . . . acerno).

Verg. Aen. 8.178: for text and translation see solium under “XI.4. Chairs, Benches, Foot-stools.”

alder: see, in this section, alnus.

alnus -i (f.): alder.

Plin. HN 16.218: “larch and black alder do best in wet conditions” (larix in umore praecipua et alnus nigra).

Plin. HN 16.219: “the alder if driven into the ground in boggy places lasts forever and carries a load of any amount” (adacta in terram in palustribus alnus aeterna onerisque quantilibet patiens).

Plin. HN 16.224 (pipes): for text and translation see, in this section, pinus.

Plin. HN 16.68: “[the burl occasionally found on the alder] is as inferior [to the other kinds of burls] as the alder itself is to the maple” (tanto deterius quantum ab acere alnus ipsa distat).

Vitr. 2.9.10 (alder piling used to shore up foundations): “lasts unperished for eternity, supports the crushing load of walls, and preserves them without failing” (permanet inmortalis ad aeternitatem et sustinet inmania pondera structurae et sine vitiis conservat).

Vitr. 2.9.11: for text and translation see palus under “V. Foundations.”aquifolium -i (also aquifolia -ae) (f.): holly

Plin. HN 16.231 (veneer): for text and translation see lamina under “IX.2 Interior Woodwork.”

ash: see, in this section, fraxinus, farnus.

beech: see, in this section, fagus.

betulla -ae (f.): the (Gallic) white birch.

Plin. HN 16.74 -75: “this Gallic tree, with its wonderful whiteness and slender form, frightening because [it supplies] the [whipping] rods of the magistrates, easily bent for hoops, also for the ribs of baskets” (Gallica haec arbor mirabili candore atque tenuitate, terribilis magistratuum virgis, eadem circulis flexilis, item corbium costis).

birch: see, in this section, betulla.

box: see, in this section, buxus.

buxus -i (f.): the box tree and its wood (the latter is neuter: buxum, -i).

Ovid Met. 4.30 (reference to a flute): “box [drilled] with holes” (foramine buxus).

Mart. 14.25: “[a comb of ] boxwood with multifissured teeth” (multifido buxus . . . dente).

Boxwood for combs is also mentioned by Ovid in the Fasti (6.229) and by Juvenal (14.194).

Plin. HN 16.70: “a wood rated among the best is that from the box tree, rarely with uneven grain except at the root, the rest clear-grained; the tree’s wood is valued for a certain toughness and hardness and light color, the tree itself for ornamental gardens” (in primis vero materies honorata buxo est raro crispanti nec nisi radice, de cetero levi, cuius materia est lentitie quadam et duritie ac pallore commendabilis, ipsa vero arbor et topiario opere).

Plin. HN 16.73: “the holly, the box, the holm oak, the juniper, the turpentine-tree, the poplar, the mountain ash and the hornbeam love the mountains” (montes amant . . . aquifolia, buxus, ilex, iuniperus, terebinthus, populus, ornus, carpinus).

Plin. HN 16.204: “the densest grain of all timber—and thus the heaviest wood—is considered the box and ebony; the [trees are] slender in form. Neither floats in water” (spississima ex omni materie, ideo et gravissima, iudicatur hebenus et buxus, graciles natura. neutra in aquis fluvitat).

Plin. HN 16.212 (a: resistance to rot and age): for text and translation see, in this section, cupressus.

Plin. HN 16.212 (b: resistance to checking, splitting): for text and translation see, in this section, cedrus.

Plin. HN 16.226 (problems with gluing): for text and translation see, in this section, cornus. See also gluten under “III. Tools.”

Plin. HN 16.230: “there are in fact minor applications [of wood] in the operations of carpentry; it is significant to relate that the most serviceable handles for augers are made from wild olive, box, holm oak, elm, and ash, and from these same woods mallets, and larger mallets from pine and holm oak” (sunt vero et parvi usus fabrilium ministeriorum, insigneque proditum terebris vaginas ex oleastro, buxo, ilice, ulmo, fraxino utilissimas fieri, ex iisdem malleos, maioresque e pinu et ilice).

Plin. HN 16.231 (veneer): for text and translation see lamina under “IX. Interior Woodwork.”

Plin. HN 35.77 (educational innovations of classical Greece): “freeborn children . . . were taught drawing on boxwood” (pueri ingenui . . . graphicen in buxo, docerentur).

Pliny’s reference is to flat tablets, presumably covered with wax, upon which sketches could be made.

Verg. Aen. 10.136–37: “as ivory shines when it has been enclosed by boxwood or Orician terebinth” (inclusum buxo aut Oricia terebintho / lucet ebur).

Virgil’s reference is to inlay work.

Verg. Georg. 2.449: “boxwood, polished smooth [or “shaped”] on the lathe” (torno rasile buxum).

Vitr. 7.3.1 (interior ties of a hanging Roman vault): for text and translation see asser, under “VIII.2 Roofing and Ceilings.”

caprificus -i (f.): the wild fig tree.

Plin. HN 16.227: “all the woods we have described as pliant are bendable for every application, so too are the mulberry and wild fig” (cuicumque operi flexilia omnia quae lenta diximus, praeterque morus et caprificus).

carpinus -i (f.): hornbeam. Hornbeam was valued as a hard, tough, close-grained wood.

Cato Rust. 31.1 (olive press): “make the pressing-beam ideally from black hornbeam” (prelum ex carpino potissimum facito).

Vitr. 2.9.12: “the hornbeam . . . is not fragile but exhibits a most useful flexibility [or is ‘most easily handled’]. Therefore the Greeks, since they make the yokes for draft animals from this wood, and since among them yokes are called zyga, they also call this wood ‘zygiaʼ” (carpinus . . . non est fragilis, sed habet utilissimam tractabilitatem. Itaque Graeci, quod ex ea materia iuga iumentis conparant, quod apud eos iuga “zyga” vocitantur, item “zygian” eam appellant).

castanea -ae (f.): the chestnut tree. Pliny tends to confuse this tree with walnut (iuglans).

Plin. HN 16.223 (roofing beams; Pliny uses iuglans but intends to refer to chestnut): for text and translation see trabs under “VIII.2 Roofing and Ceilings.”

cedar: see, in this section, cedrus.

cedrus -i (f.): cedar.

Plin. HN 16.73: “the cedar, the larch, the torch-pine and the other trees from which resin is obtained love the mountains” (montes amant cedrus, larix, taeda et ceterae e quibus resina gignitur).

Plin. HN 16.187: “the cedar, the larch, and the juniper are red” (cedrus et larix et iuniperus rubent).

Plin. HN 16. 203: “but in Egypt and Syria for want of fir the kings are said to have used cedar for their fleets; the largest cedar is reported to have been acquired in Cyprus” (at in Aegypto ac Syria reges inopia abietis cedro ad classes feruntur usi; maxima in Cypro traditur).

Plin. HN 16.207: “cedar cannot hold a nail” (clavum non tenet cedrus).

Plin. HN 16.212(a) (resistance to rot and age): for text and translation see, in this section, cupressus.

Plin. HN 16.212(b): “the cedar, cypress, olive, and box do not split or check by themselves” (rimam fissuramque non capit sponte cedrus, cupressus, olea, buxum).

Plin. HN 16.213 (durability of the wood): for text and translation see, in this section, hebenus. As roofing material for the Temple of Artemis at Ephesus see lacunar under “VIII.2 Roofing and Ceilings.”

Plin. HN 16.216 (beams of Numidian cedar): for text and translation see trabs under “VIII.2 Roofing and Ceilings.”

Vitr. 2.9.13: “from cedar is derived an oil called ‘cedrium.’ When other things are soaked with this, for example books, they are not damaged by worms or rot” (ex cedro oleum quod cedrium dicitur, nascitur. quo reliquae res cum sunt unctae, uti etiam libri, a tineis et carie non laeduntur).

cerrus: see, in this section, quercus.

chestnut: see, in this section, castanea.

citrus -i (f.): the citrus or thuja tree. The neuter form, citrum, is used to refer specifically to the wood of the citrus. Citrum can also refer to a table made of citrus wood; see mensa under “XI.5. Tables.”

Luc. 9.429–30: “our axes have invaded the unknown forest [of Mauretania], we have sought tables and delicacies from the ends of the earth” (in nemus ignotum nostrae venere secures, / extremoque epulas mensasque petimus ab orbe).

Plin. HN 13.91 (an intense desire for citrus): “table mania” (mensarum insania).

Plin. HN 13.93 (construction of citrus tabletops): for text and translation see iunctura under “IV. Joints.”

Plin. HN 13.94: “under this topic it seems proper not to omit a table that belonged to the emperor Tiberius which was four feet two and a quarter inches across and one and one-half inches thick all over, but it was only covered with a veneer [of citrus wood]” (qua in re non omittendum videtur Tiberio principi mensam quattuor pedes sextante et sicilico excedentum, tota vero crassitudine sescunciali, operimento lamnae vestitam fuisse).

Plin. HN 13.97: “the highest of all [its merits] is its color, the color of mead is the most pleasing” (summa vero omnium in colore: hic maxime mulsi placet).

Plin. HN 16.66 (along with maple a superior wood): see, in this section, acer.

Plin. HN 16.231 (veneer): for text and translation see lamina under “IX. Interior Woodwork.” Stat. Silv. 3.3.94 (part of the contents of the imperial treasury): “Massylian citrus wood” (Massylaque robora).

Lit: “Massylian oaks,” here the hard wood of the citrus is referenced poetically as “oak.”

See also lamina under “IX.2 Interior Woodwork”; acer under “XII.2. Species of Trees”; “XII.3. Drying, Preservatives and Conditioners”; and mensa under “XI.5. Tables.”

citrum -i (n.): the wood of the citrus. See, in this section, citrus.

cornel: see, in this section, cornus.

cornus -i (f.): the cornel. A member of the dogwood family, having extremely hard wood.

Cato Rust. 18.9 (dowels or tenons of cornel to fasten boards in an olive press): for text and translation see occludo under “IV. Joints.”

Plin. HN 16.187: “cornus wood shines bright yellow in hunting spears notched with incisions for decoration” (fulva cornus in venabulis nitet incisuris nodata propter decorem).

Plin. HN 16.206: “[cornel] wood is hardly useful for anything else except the spokes of wheels or in case something has to be wedged in wood or fixed with dowels [made of it], which are like iron” (sed lignum non alio paene quam ad radios rotarum utile aut si quid cuneandum sit in ligno clavisve figendum ceu ferreis).

Plin. HN 16.226 (difficulty in gluing cornel to other woods): “the [wood of the] service-tree, hornbeam, box, and to a lesser degree linden, have a strong dislike for cornel” (cornum maxime odit sorbus, carpinus, buxus, postea tilia).

See also gluten under “III. Tools.”

Verg. Aen. 12.267–8 (a launched spear of cornel): “the cornel [shaft] slices through the air, high pitched and unerring” (stridula cornus et auras certa secat).

Verg. Georg. 457–8: “the cornel, with its sturdy spearshafts, good for war” (validis hastilibus et bona bello cornus).

corylus -i (f.): hazel (or filbert). Since the hazel grows only to a small size, it was used only for small implements (Cato 18.9, however, suggests its use in the making of a disk for an olive press).

Cato Rust. 18.9 (a disk for an olive press): “fashion the disk from elm or hazel, if you have both, arrange them alternately” (orbem ex ulmo aut ex corylo facito: si utrumque habebis, alternas indito).

cupressus -i (f.): cypress.

Plin. HN 16.141: “both [the male and female trees], having their branches pruned off, are rendered into poles or beams, which [having grown] twelve years sell for a denarius apiece . . . the native country of this tree is Crete” (utraque autem immittitur in perticas asseresve amputatione ramorum, qui XIII anno denariis singulis veneunt . . . huic patriainsula Creta).

Plin. HN 16.212(a): “the cypress, cedar, ebony, nettle-tree, box, yew, juniper, wild olive and olive do not suffer from age or rot” (cariem vetustatemque non sentiunt cupressus, cedrus, hebenus, lotus, buxum, taxus, iuniperus, oleaster, olea).

Plin. HN 16.212(b): resistance to checking, splitting. For text and translation see, in this section, cedrus.

Plin. HN 16.213 (durability): for text and translation see, in this section, hebenus.

Plin. HN 16.215: doors of Artemis at Ephesus; best of woods for retaining its polish (see also valvae under “IX.3. Doors and Shutters”).

Plin. HN 16.216: “the statue of Veiovis on the citadel [of Rome] of cypress has lasted . . .” (simulacrum Veiovis in arce e cupresso durat . . .).

Plin. HN 16.223: “pine and cypress are the most resistant against rot and wood-worms” (pinus et cupressus adversus cariem tiniasque firmissimae).

Vitr. 2.9.12 (cypress and pine): “because of their abundance of moisture, in structural applications they often warp [or sag], but they last for a long time without degrading” (propter umoris satietatem in operibus solent esse pandae, sed in vetustatem sine vitiis conservantur).

Vitr. 2.9.13: “resin [comes from] cypress and pine” (ex cupressu et pinu resina).

Vitr. 7.3.1 (interior lath- and plasterwork): for text and translation see asser under “VIII. Roofing and Ceilings.”

cypress: see, in this section, cupressus.

dogwood: see, in this section, cornus.

ebony: see, in this section, hebenus.

elm: see, in this section, ulmus.

fagus -i (f.): beech. Note: in the passages below, Pliny can confuse fagus with the Greek phegos (used by Theophrastus, meaning “oak”). Thus some uses of the beech listed in this section by Pliny are in fact more appropriate for the quercus (cf. discussion in Meiggs 1982, 25). The statements below are contradictory as far as the relationship between beech and water goes. In fact, if left submerged, beech lasts well and was used in shipbuilding.

Ov. Met. 8.669–70 (description of the hut of Baucis and Philemon): “hollowed goblets of beechwood, coated on the inside with yellow wax” (fago / pocula, qua cava sunt, flaventibus inlita ceris).

Plin. HN 16.35 (use of bark): for text and translation see, in this section, abies.

Later in this passage Pliny says that fresh bark was “used for ritual purposes” (in . . . usu sacrorum religiosus est)”; this practice of stripping the fresh bark killed the tree.

Plin. HN 16.36: good for roofing shingles. For text and translation see scandula under “VIII. Roofing and Ceilings.”

Plin. HN 16.218: “both beech and walnut are well-judged [for use in] water, these indeed are best among those [woods] which are placed underground, and juniper, too [which is also most suitable for open-air structures]” (non inprobatur et fagus in aqua et iuglans, hae quidem in iis quae defodiuntur vel principales, item iuniperus [eadem et subdialibus aptissima]).

Plin. HN 16.229 (suitable for boxes and document cases): for text and translation see lamina under “IX. Interior Woodwork.”

Vitr. 2.9.9: “the turkey oak and the beech, because they have a similar mixture of water and earth and fire, and most of all air, being furnished with open pores admit moisture and quickly lose their integrity” (cerrus quercus fagus, quod pariter habent mixtionem umoris et ignis et terreni, aeris plurimum, provisa raritates umoris penitus recipiendo celeriter marcescunt).

Vitr. 7.1.2: “no [flooring board] of turkey oak, beech, or ash can last for a long time” (namque de cerro (quercus cerris) aut fago seu farno nullus ad vestutatem potest permanere).

farnus -i (f.): the ash or its wood.

Vitr. 7.1.2: for text and translation see, in this section, fagus.

fig, wild: see, in this section, caprificus.

fir: see, in this section, abies.

fraxinus -i (f.): ash.

Plin. HN 16.219 (curing ash by girdling): see circumcisura under “XIII. Harvesting of Trees.”

Plin. HN 16.228: “ash is the most compliant wood for whatever application, it is better than hazelwood for spears, lighter than dogwood, and more flexible than the mountain ash; indeed the Gallic ash has the lightness and suppleness for chariots” (oboedientissima quocumque in opere fraxinus, eademque hastis corylo melior, cornu levior, sorbo lentior; Gallica vero etiam ad currus flexili levitate).

Plin. HN 16.230 (tool handles and mallets): for text and translation see, in this section, buxus.

Vitr. 2.9.11 (tendency to warp or sag when not cured): for text and translation see coagmentum under “IV. Joints.”

hazel: see, in this section, corylus.

hebenus -i (m. and f.): ebony.

Luc. 10.117: “Mareotican [Egyptian] ebony” (hebenus Mareotica).

Plin. HN 212 (resistance to rot and age): for text and translation see, in this section, cupressus. Plin. HN 16.213: “it is believed that ebony lasts forever, and also cypress and cedar” (maxime aeternam putant hebenum, et cupressum cedrumque).

Verg. Georg. 2.116–17: “India alone produces the black ebony” (sola India nigrum / fert hebenum).

holly: and the wood of the holly: see, in this section, aquifolium.

hornbeam: see, in this section, carpinus.

ilex -icis (f.): the holm oak, or ilex. An evergreen species of oak, a member of the holly family, with rounded or pointed leaves.

Cato Rust. 18.9 (useful for tenons or dowels): for text and translation see subscus under “IV. Joints.”

Plin. HN 16.19: “there are two species of ilex. One of these from Italy [with rounded leaf, the other type from] the provinces with pointed leaves” (ilicis duo genera. ex his in Italia folio . . . in provinciis aquifoliae sunt ilices).

Plin. HN 16.73 (thrives in high altitudes): for text and translation see, in this section, buxus.

Plin. HN 16.230 (tool handles and mallets): for text and translation see, in this section, buxus.

Plin. HN 16.231 (veneer): for text and translation see lamina under “IX.2 Interior Woodwork.”

Plin. HN 16.229: “the ilex also can be cut into extremely thin layers, and also has a color not unpleasing” (secatur in lamnas praetenues et ilex, colore quoque non ingrata).

iuglans -ndis (f.): walnut.

Plin.HN 16.218 (resistance to moisture): for text and translation see, in this section, fagus.

Plin. HN 16.223 (probably in reference to chestnut): for text and translation see trabs under “VIII. Roofing and Ceilings.”

iuniperus -i (f.): juniper.

Plin. HN 16.73 (thrives in high altitudes): for text and translation see in this section, buxus.

Plin. HN 16.187 (red color of wood): for text and translation see, in this section, cedrus.

Plin. HN 16.212 (resistance to rot and age): for text and translation see, in this section, cupressus.

Plin. HN 16.216 (used for the beams of the Temple of Diana at Saguntum in Spain): for text and translation see trabs under “VIII. Roofing and Ceilings.”

Plin. HN 16.218 (resistance to moisture): for text and translation see, in this section, fagus.

Vitr. 7.3.1 (interior ties, or catenae, of a hanging Roman vault): for text and translation see asser under “VIII. Roofing and Ceilings.”

juniper: see, in this section, iuniperus.

larch: see, in this section, larix.

larix -icis (f.): larch.

Plin. HN 16.45: “[resinous trees burn] except the larch which neither burns nor makes charcoal nor is consumed by the action of fire any more than stones” (excepta larice quae nec ardet nec carbonem facit nec alio modo ignis vi consumitur quam lapides).

Plin. HN 16.73 (thrives in high altitudes): for text and translation see in this section, cedrus.

Plin. HN 16.187 (a: red color of wood): for text and translation see, in this section, cedrus.

Plin. HN 16.187 (b): “the female larch has [wood] that the Greeks call ‘aegis,ʼ this wood has been found to last forever without splitting [when used for] the panels of paintings” (larix femina habet quam Graeci vocant aegida . . . inventum pictorum tabellis inmortale null-isque fissile rimis hoc lignum).

Plin. HN 16.200 (a beam of record size): for text and translation see chapter 12 of the text.

Plin. HN 16.218 (suitability for wet conditions): for text and translation see, in this section, alnus.

Plin. HN 16.222 (used to form strong beams): for text and translation see, in this section, abies.

Vitr. 2.9.14: “the larch is known only to locals on the banks of the river Po and the shores of the Adriatic Sea. Because of the fierce bitterness of its sap, it is not harmed by rot or worms . . . nor can it burn by itself . . . because of its weight it does not float on water” (larix vero, qui non est notus nisi is municipalibus qui sunt circa ripam fluminis Padi et litora maris Hadriani, non solum ab suco vehementi amaritate ab carie aut tinea non nocetur, . . . nec ipse per se potest ardere . . . propterque pondus ab aqua non sustinetur).

Vitr. 2.9.16 (discovery of this wood by Julius Caesar): “and so the fort was called ‘Larignum’ in the same way the wood [used to build its fortifications] was called larch” (et ideo id castellum Larignum, item materies larigna est appellata).

Vitr. 2.9.17: “[larch is] suitable for interior woodwork not less than clear fir” (tractabilis ad intestinum opus non minus sappinea).

See also opus intestinum under “IX. Interior Woodwork.”

lime: see, in this section, tilia.

linden: see, in this section, tilia.

molluscum: see, in this section, acer.

morus -i (f.): the (black) mulberry.

Plin. HN 16.218 (praises the mulberry for its durability): “it blackens with age” (quae vetu-state etiam nigrescit).

Plin. HN 16.227 (flexibility): for text and translation see, in this section, caprificus.

maple: see, in this section, acer.

mulberry: see, in this section, morus.

oak: see, in this section, quercus, robur.

olea -ae (f.): olive. Oleaster refers to the wild olive.

Plin. HN 16.212 (a: resistance to rot and age): for text and translation see, in this section, cupressus.

Plin. HN 16.212 (b: resistance to checking, splitting): for text and translation see, in this section, cedrus.

Plin. HN 16.222 (not suitable for beams): “oak and olive bend and yield under weight” (robur, olea incurvantur ceduntque ponderi).

Plin. HN 16.230 (a: hinges of olive): for text and translation see cardo under “IX.3. Doors and Shutters.”

Plin. HN 16.230 (b: tool handles and mallets): for text and translation see, in this section, buxus.

Vitr. 1.5.3 (used to reinforce the walls of fortifications): “charred olivewood beams” (tabulae oleagineae ustilatae).

The use of tabulae for “beams” is unusual; perhaps Vitruvius means “planks.”

Vitr. 7.3.1 (interior ties of a hanging or false vault): for text and translation see asser under “VIII. Roofing and Ceilings.”

olive: see, in this section, olea.

palma -ae (f.): the palm tree.

Plin. HN 16.231 (veneer): for text and translation see lamina under “IX.2 Interior Woodwork.”

picea -ae (f.): pitch pine. The picea was associated with death; it was grown on graves or placed at the doorways of houses where a family member was being mourned. It was also an important source of pine resin. As far as woodworking is concerned, Pliny considers it a tree of few practical functions.

Plin. HN 16.40: “[it is] a tree associated with funerals” (feralis arbor).

Plin. HN 16.42 (uses of pitch pine): “vats . . . split shingles . . . pieces of joinery” (cupae . . . fissiles scandulae . . . secamenta).

Plin. HN 16.35 (use of bark): for text and translation see, in this section, abies.

Plin. HN 16.224 (pipes): for text and translation see, in this section, pinus.

pine: see, in this section, pinus.

pinus -us (or -i) (f.): pine.

Cato Rust. 18.8: “make the anchor posts (for an olive press) of oak or pine” (arbores stipites robustas facito aut pineas).

Plin. HN 16.36 (suitability for roofing shingles): for text and translation see scandula under “VIII. Roofing and Ceilings.”

Plin. HN 16.223: “pine and cypress are the strongest to resist rot and destructive worms” (pinus et cupressus adversus cariem tiniasque firmissimae).

Plin. HN 16.224: “pines, pitch pines, and alders are hollowed to form pipes for carrying water” (pinus, piceae, alni ad aquarum ductus in tubos cavantur).

Plin. HN 16.230 (large mallets): for text and translation see, in this section, buxus.

Sen. Ep. 90. 9 (transport of pines for building): for text and translation see lacunar under “VIII. Roofing and Ceilings.”

Verg. Aen. 11.136: “they fell pines that had soared as high as the stars” (evertunt actas ad sidera pinus).

Vitr. 2.9.12 (warpage, resistance to decay): for text and translation see, in this section, cupressus.

Vitr. 2.9.13 (source of resin): for text and translation see, in this section, cupressus.

pine, pitch: see, in this section, picea.

pistachio: see, in this section, staphylodendron.

poplar: see, in this section, populus.

populus -i (f.) (or poplus): the poplar tree, sacred to Hercules. Pliny and Vitruvius mention the white (alba) and black (nigra) varieties, Pliny the libyca as well, an unidentified species.

Cato Rust. 6.3: “around the perimeters [of the farm] and along the streets plant elms and some poplars . . . so that you will have [leaves for fodder] and timber, if there is a job to be done, will be ready” (circum coronas et circum vias ulmos serito et partim populos, uti . . . habeas et materies, siquo opus sit, parata erit).

Plin. HN 16.73 (found in high altitudes): for text and translation see in this section, buxus.

Plin. HN 16.85: “[there are] three kinds of poplar: the white, the black and the one called the Libyan” (populi tria genera, alba ac nigra et quae Libyca appellatur).

Plin. HN 16.231 (veneer): for text and translation see lamina under “IX. Interior Woodwork.” Vitr. 2.9.9 (poplar, willow, and linden): “on account of their porosity [the wood] is white and for carving is convenient to handle” (propter raritatem sunt candida et in sculpturis commodam praestant tractabilitatem).

quercus -us (f.): oak; quercus robur (English or Valonia oak), cerrus (turkey or scrub oak). The evergreen oak (ilex) is considered separately. (fig. 12.3)

Caes. BGall. 3.13.3: “the ships [of the Gauls] were made entirely of robur, to endure any violence and buffeting” (naves totae factae ex robore ad quamvis vim et contumeliam perfer-endam).

Cato Rust. 17.1: “oak wood . . . is always ready [for cutting] at the winter solstice” (robus materies . . . ubi solstitium fuerit ad brumam semper tempestiva est).

Cato Rust. 18.8 (use in an olive press): for text and translation see, in this section, pinus.

Plin. HN 16.36 (robur good for roofing shingles): for text and translation see scandula under “VIII. Roofing and Ceilings.”

Plin. HN 16.207 (hardness of robur): “[it is] so hard it cannot be bored unless it has been soaked in water and even then when a nail has been hammered into it it cannot be pulled out” (tanta duritia ut terebrari nisi madefactum non queat et ne sic quidem adactus avelli clavus).

Plin. HN 16.218: “elm endures in the open air, [quercus] robur underground and quercus submerged in water; the same [quercus employed] above ground makes masonry crack by its warping” (ulmus in perflatu firma, robur defossum et in aquis quercus obruta; eadem supra terram rimosa facit opera torquendo sese).

Note the differentiation between robur (Valonia oak) and quercus (oak).

Plin. HN 16.222 (beams of robur bend under a load): for text and translation see, in this section, olea.

Plin. HN 16.226 (forms a poor bond when glued): see gluten, under “III. Tools.”

Plin. HN 36.187: “it is considered counterproductive to sheathe the wood floor with oak planks, because they warp” (quernis axibus contabulari, quia torquentur, inutile putant).

Vitr. 2.9.8 (foundations): “when it [robur] is buried in underground works [i.e., foundations] it has indefinite durability” (cum in terrenis operibus obruitur, infinitam habet aeternitatem).

Vitr. 2.9.9: “aesculus . . . has great applications in building” (aesculus . . . ha bet in aedificiis magnas utlitates).

For commentary on the identification of aesculus see chapter 12 of the text, n. 8.

Vitr. 2.9.9 (turkey oak prone to decay): for text and translation, see, in this section, fagus.

Vitr. 7.1.2: for text and translation see, in this section, fagus.

Later in the same passage, Vitruvius warns against mixing planks of “winter oak” (quercus aesculus) with common oak (quercus robur), since the latter tends to warp when moist.

Vitr. 7.3.1 (concerning interior ties of a hanging Roman vault): for text and translation see asser under “VIII. Roofing and Ceilings.”

See also, in this section, comments under fagus.

robur, -oris (n.): oak (common oak, English oak, Valonia oak). See, in this section, quercus.

salix -icis (f.): willow. A grove of willows (or osier bed): salictum.

Cato Rust. 1.7 (ranking the most important features of a farm): “a vineyard is first . . . in second place is an irrigated garden, third a willow grove . . .” (vinea est prima . . . secundo loco hortus inriguus, tertio salictum).

Cato Rust. 20.1: “[stabilize an iron bar in an olive press] with wedges of willow wood” (cuneis salignis).

Ov. Met. 8.655–56: “a cushion of soft rushes was placed on the couch with a frame and feet of willow wood” (torum de molli fluminis ulva / inpositum lecto sponda pedibusque salignis).

Plin. HN 16.174: “the uses of the willow take many forms . . . vine trellises . . . basketry . . . [the branches] most suitable for luxurious armchairs” (salicis utilitatum plura genera . . . lugisv inearum . . . corbibus . . . indelicias cathedrarum aptissimae).

Verg. Georg. 2.446: “the willows’ fruitfulness is in their branches” (viminibus salices fecundae).

Vitr. 2.9.9 (suitability for carving): for text and translation see, in this section, populus.

sorbus, -i (f.): a genus of trees, the European service tree (Sorbus domestica), a member of the rose family (Rosa-ceae), has small edible fruit.

Plin. HN 74: “the sorbus thrives in cold places” (gaudet frigidis sorbus).

Plin. HN 16.226 (poor bond when glued to cornus): for text and translation see, in this section, cornus. See also “gluten” under “III. Tools.”

staphylodendron -i (n.): the (wild) pistachio.

Plin. HN 16.69: “across [i.e., north of ] the Alps is a tree with wood very similar to the white maple (=ash?) which is called staphylodendron” (est trans Alpes arbor simillima aceri albo materie quae vocatur staphylodendron).

taxus -i (f.): the yew tree.

Verg. Georg. 2.458: “yews are bent into Ituraean bows” (Ituraeos taxi torquentur in arcus). The Ituraeans were an Arab people of the eastern empire famed for archery.

terebinthus -i (f.): the terebinth or turpentine-tree. A wood valued for its grain, it was used for furniture and fine wooden utensils.

Plin. HN 16.73 (found at high altitudes): for text and translation see in this section, buxus.

Plin. HN 16.205 (goblets of terebinth): for text and translation see tornus under “III. Tools.”

Plin. HN 16.231 (veneer): for text and translation see lamina under “IX. Interior Woodwork.”

Verg. Aen. 10.136–37: “as ivory shines when it has been enclosed by boxwood or Orician terebinth” (inclusum buxo aut Oricia terebintho / lucet ebur).

tilia -ae (f.): linden (or lime). The wood of the linden was relatively soft; thus it was good for small items and could be easily turned on a lathe (see tornus under “III. Tools”). Tilia is related to the American basswood, also known for its suitability for carving.

Plin. HN 16.35 (use of bark): for text and translation see, in this section, abies.

Plin. HN 16.207: “linden is the softest [of woods] and it seems to be the hottest as well: the proof of this is evident since it blunts adzes so quickly” (mollissima tilia; eadem videtur et caldissima: argumentum adferunt quod citissime ascias retundat).

Plin. HN 16.226 (poor bond when glued to cornus): for text and translation see, in this section, cornus. See also gluten under “III. Tools.”

Vitr. 2.9.9 (suitability for carving): for text and translation see, in this section, populus.

turkey oak: see, in this section, quercus.

turpentine-tree: see, in this section, terebrinthus.

ulmus -i (f.): elm.

Cato Rust. 6.3 (used on farms as a source of timber): for text and translation see, in this section, populus.

Cato Rust. 18.9 (disk for an olive press): for text and translation see, in this section, corylus.

Plin. HN 16.72: mentions four varieties in Italy: Atinia, Gallica, Italica, Silvestris.

Plin. HN 16.210: (suitability for hinges and door frames): for text and translation see cardo under “IX.3. Doors and Shutters.”

Plin. HN 16.218 (durability of elm in open air): for text and translation see, in this section, quercus.

Plin. HN 16.219 (curing elm by girdling): for text and translation see circumcisura under “XIII. Harvesting of Trees.”

Plin. HN 16.229: “the elm would compete [with ash in terms of flexibility] if its weight did not count against it” (aemularetur ulmus ni pondus esset in culpa).

Plin. HN 16.230 (tool handles and mallets): for text and translation see, in this section, buxus.

Verg. Georg. 2.446: “the [value of ] elms is in the leaves” (frondibus ulmi).

Vitr. 2.9.11 (warps when uncured, good for joinery): for text and translation see coagmentum under “IV. Joints.”

walnut: see, in this section, iuglans.

willow: see, in this section, salix.

zygia: perhaps Norway maple (Acer platanoides)?

Plin. HN 16.67: “easy to split” (fissili ligno).

XII.3. DRYING, PRESERVATIVES, AND CONDITIONERS DRYING BY APPLICATION OF HEAT

Columella Rust. 1.6.19: “the smoke room too, in which timber, if it has not been cut for a long time, may be dried quickly, can be built in the part of the country villa next to the rural baths” (fumarium quoque, quo materia, si non sit iam pridem caesa, festinato siccetur, in parte rusticae villae fieri potest iunctum rusticis balneis).

TREATMENT BY CHARRING

Vitr. 1.5.3 (on binding and reinforcing the outer and inner walls of a defensive circuit): “timbers of charred olive wood should be frequently placed [transversely] in order that both facades of the wall as if connected by pins . . . may have ever lasting strength. For such timber cannot be injured by decay or weather or age” (tabulae oleagineae ustilatae quam creberrime instruantur, uti utraeque muri frontes inter se, quemadmodum fibulis . . . conligatae . . . aeternam habeant firmitatem; namque ei materiae nec caries nec tempestates nec vetustas . . . potest nocere).

TREATMENT BY OILING

The use of cedar oil on wood:

Plin. HN 16.198: “timber daubed with cedar oil suffers from neither worms nor decay” (cedri oleo peruncta materies nec tiniam nec cariem sentit).

The use of amurca (the by-product of olive oil production):

Cato Rust. 98.2: “lest moths ruin clothing . . . rub the exterior of the bottom, the feet, and the corners of the chest with [amurca] . . . If you rub wooden furniture all over [with amurca] it will not decay, and so treated will shine more brightly” (vestimenta ne tiniae tangant . . . ea (amurca) unguito fundam arcae et extrinsecus et pedes et angulos . . . et item (amurca) ligneam supellectilem omnem si ungues, non putescet, et cum ea terseris spendidior fiet).

TREATMENT BY SMEARING WITH OR IMMERSING IN DUNG

Cato Rust. 31.1: for text and translation see fibula under “IV.2 Joints.”

Plin. HN 16.222: “we have in our country some timbers that check [split] by themselves, on account of which architects prescribe that they should be smeared with dung and then dried, so that [drying] winds will not harm them (apud nos materiae finduntur aliquae sponte; ob id architecti eas fimo inlitas siccari iubent ut adflatus non noceant).

TREATMENT BY IMMERSING WOOD IN SALTWATER

Plin. HN 13.99: “the shattered remains of ships have recently shown that this timber, dried by the action of seawater, is solidified with a hardness that resists decay more strongly than any other method” (naufragia docuere nuper hanc quoque materiam siccatam mari duritie incorrupta cospissari non ullo modo vehementius).

TREATMENT BY DRYING WOOD IN PILES OF GRAIN (AND BY BURYING IT IN EARTH): (IN TEXT)

Plin. HN 13.99: “carpenters lay [citrus wood] in heaps of grain for periods of a week with intervals of a week between, and it is surprising how much its weight is reduced by the process” (artifices vero frumenti acervis inponunt septenis diebus totidem intermissis, mirumque ponderi quantum ita detrahatur).

In the same passage Pliny reports that some barbari (probably the locals of north African Mauretania where the citrus wood was harvested) treat the raw timber by coating it with wax and burying it in the ground.

XIII. Harvesting of Trees

XIII.1. INTRODUCTION: BEST CONDITIONS FOR FELLING

Cato. Rust. 31.1–2 (cutting in late autumn): “when the moon is waning, in the afternoon and without a southerly wind, take out the elm, pine, nut and all the other timber. It will be the right time when their seed is ripe, and take care you neither cut it nor haul it in wet conditions” (ulmeam, pineam, nuceam, hanc atque aliam materiem omnem . . . luna decrescente eximito post meridiem sine vento austro. Tum erit tempestiva, cum semen suum maturum erit, cavetoque per rorem trahas aut doles).

Cato Rust. 37.4: “take care that you neither chop timber nor fell it nor even touch it, if you can [avoid it] unless it is dry and neither frosty nor covered with dew” (caveto nequam materiem doles neu caedas neu tangas, si potes, nisi siccam neu gelidam neu rorulentam).

Plin. HN 16.188: “[if tree trunks] are to be stripped of their bark and, being well turned, used for temples and other applications calling for columns, the favorable time for felling is when they bud [i.e., early spring, so that the bark can be removed easily] . . . [however,] for beams and those [timbers] for which the axe removes the bark [the favorable time for cutting] is from the winter solstice to the rise of the westerly wind [or, Pliny adds, even sooner] . . . generally people think it is enough to take care that [no tree] is felled for hewing before its fruits have been borne” (caedi tempestivum quae decorticentur, ut teretes ad templa ceteraque usus rotundi, cum germinant . . . tigna et quibus auferat securis corticem a bruma ad favonium . . . vulgo satis putant observare ne qua dedolanda sternatur ante editos suos fructus).

Plin. HN 16.190: “the emperor Tiberius ordained that the larches be cut in Raetia [during the full moon] for the reconstruction of the deck used for the mock naval battles that had been destroyed by fire” (Tiberius Caesar concremato ponte naumachiario larices ad restituendum caedi in Raetia praefinivit).

Plin. HN 16.191–92: “some add [say] the rising of the dog [star is also a good time for cutting] and thus timber was felled for the Forum of Augustus” (quidam et canis ortum addunt et sic caesas materias in forum Augustum).

The dog star, Sirius, rises with the sun on July 3.

Plin. HN 16.192: “[trees that are] neither immature nor old are the most useful for timber” (nec novellae autem ad materiem nec veteres utilissimae).

Plin. HN 16.193–94: Pliny cites Cato (Rust. 31.1ff., cited above, XIII.1).

Vitr. 2.9.1–2: “wood should be cut from the beginning of autumn to the time before the west wind [favonius] starts to blow . . . the force of the winter wind compresses and consolidates them [trees and thus their wood]” (materies caedenda est a primo autumno ad id tempus, quod erit antequam flare incipiat favonius . . . aeris hiberni vis conprimit et consolidat eas).

XIII.2. FELLING AND ROUGH CUTTING

caedo, -ere: to cut down, hew

Cato Rust. 37.4: for text and translation see above under XIII.1.

circumcisura -ae (f.): the practice of removing a strip of bark from around the trunk of a living tree before it is cut down, to aid in removing excess moisture.

Plin. HN 16.192 (girdling): “also, some people purposely leave [trees] cut all around as far as the medulla, so that all the moisture [sap] may drain out of them while they are still standing” (circumcisas quoque in medullam aliqui non inutiliter relinquunt, ut omnis umor stantibus defluat).

Plin. HN 16.219: “elm and ash are . . . more reliable if the trees are left standing and dried by girdling” (ulmus et fraxinus . . . stantesque ac circumcisura siccatae fideliores).

Note Vitruvius (2.9.11) also recommends that these same species be allowed to dry out “in the field” (in agro perfecto).

Vitr. 2.9.3: for text and translation see medulla under “XII.1. Parts of Trees.”

decido -ere: to cut or saw.

Sen. Ep. 90.9: “to cut timbers square” (in quadratum tigna decidere).

Cf. also “serra” under “III. Tools,” and “tignum” under “XIV. Finished Lumber.”

decorticatio -onis (f.): the act of stripping bark (cortex) off of timber; decorto, -are: to strip the bark off of timber.

Plin. HN 17.236: “if the stripping of the bark is only narrow [or shallow], it does not harm [the oak]” (si angusta decorticatio fuit, nihil nocet).

discindo: see, in this section, scindo.

dolo -are: to hew or chop wood.

Cato Rust. 14.3 (preparation of lumber for building): for text and translation see materia under “I. General Woodworking Terms.”

Vitr. 2.10.1: “when they are cut down and hewed” (cum autem excisae et dolatae).

The combination of excido (q.v.) and dolo is interesting. The former may refer specifically to the act of felling, while the latter refers to the initial dressing (limb removal, debarking) of the wood.

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