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Description: Roman Woodworking
~The following should be considered a representative list that includes most of the best-known examples of Roman woodworking tools. Figure numbers at the end of individual listings refer to images in the text.
PublisherYale University Press
https://doi.org/10.37862/aaeportal.00107.018
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Appendix: Archaeological Evidence of Roman Woodworking Tools (A Guide to Select Examples)
The following should be considered a representative list that includes most of the best-known examples of Roman woodworking tools. Figure numbers at the end of individual listings refer to images in the text.
ADZE
ACTUAL EXAMPLES
Adze blades
Blade fragment, iron, Gorhambury, St. Albans, U.K. Flaring blade, 8 cm cutting edge, socket not preserved. (Neal 1990, 138, fig. 131. 364)
Adze-head, iron, Silchester, Reading Museum, U.K. Socket diameter ca. 1.5 cm, spoon-shaped blade length ca. 11.5 cm, cutting edge, gougelike, 4.5 cm across. (Evans 1894, 148, fig. 14; Goodman 1964, 25, fig. 15)
Adze-head, iron, Hod Hill, Dorset, British Museum inv. 1892.9–1.1257. Socket collared with a round eye, length 15.7 cm, splayed blade with curved sides. The form is known from Iron Age and Roman contexts in Britain; this example possibly first century. (Manning 1985, 16, B7, pl. 9)
Adze-head, iron, Hod Hill, Dorset, British Museum inv. 1892.9–1.1256. Socket collared with oval eye, length 15.9 cm, flat, triangular blade, attached to socket at a sharp angle, similar to blades on the adze-hammers from Silchester and London described below. Mid-first century. (Manning 1985, 17, B10, pl. 8)

Adze-Axes
Adze-axe, iron, Pompeii, Naples Museum, inv. s. n. 307.
Adze-axe, iron with bronze blade guard from Vindonissia, Landesmuseum, Zurich. (Goodman 1964, 25, fig. 14a)
Adze-Hammers
Adze-hammer, iron, Pompeii, Naples Museum, inv. 71952. Collared, 21 cm; the hammerhead is roughly square in section; flat, triangular blade attached to the collar at a sharp angle. First century. (Ciarallo and De Carolis 1999, 129)
Adze-hammer, iron, Silchester, Reading Museum, U.K. Socket diameter ca. 3.5 cm, hammerhead roughly square in section, ca. 6 cm long, adze blade ca. 11 cm long, cutting edge 6.5 cm wide. Blade angle ca. 40 degrees. (Evans 1894, 148, fig. 13; Goodman 1964, 25, fig. 15)
Adze-hammer, iron, London, British Museum inv. 1956.4–3.1. Oval socket with collar, length 22 cm, hammerhead roughly square in section, adze blade at a sharp angle similar to the Silchester example; fragment of wood left in socket identified as whitebeam (Sorbus sp.) (Manning 1985, 18, B16, pl. 9; Painter 1961, 116, pl. 49, C)
(fig. 3.3)
Adze-hammer, iron, Pakenham, Suffolk, British Museum inv. 1867.7–11.7. Circular socket with extended conical collar, length 18.3 cm, hammerhead rectangular in section, gently curving, splayed blade; in profile the tool looks much like a modern hammer. (Manning 1985, 18, B17, pl. 9)
(fig. 3.3)
RELIEF SCULPTURE
Adze in use on a funerary relief of P. Longidienus Cam(ilia), faber navalis, Ravenna, Museo Nazionale, inv. 7. A man in a tunic shapes a curved (framing?) plank; a ship under construction rests in the background. First century (Bianchi-Bandinelli 1970, 88, fig. 96; Blümner 1875 (II), 341, fig. 55; Casson 1991, fig. 46; CIL 11.139; Gummerus 1913, 92, figs. 14–15; Kampen 1981, fig. 68; Mansuelli 1967, 126; Squarciapino 1941, 47; Zimmer 1985, pl. 7)
(fig. 3.9)
Adze in use, depiction of a seated Daedalus, ash urn of C. Volcacius Artemidorus, found in the vicinity of Tivoli, Museo Nazionale, Rome. Early second century. (Gummerus 1913, 88, fig. 13; NSc 1898, 456)
Adze in use, sarcophagus, Vatican, Museo Gregoriano Profano, inv. 3262. Depiction of a seated woodworker carving a chair leg with a short-handled adze. Mid-third century. (Amelung 1903, 864, no. 162; Blümner 1875 (II), 343, fig. 57; Liversidge 1955, fig. 64; Mols 1999, fig. 25; Richter 1966, fig. 614; Zimmer 1982, 139, no. 57)
(fig. 3.8)
Adze, possible adze-hammer, altar to Minerva dedicated by the priests of the collegium fabrum tignuariorum, Rome (S. Giorgio in Velabro), Capitoline Museums, inv. 1909. Early imperial (Augustan). (CIL 6.30982; Fava 1969, 35; Felletti Maj 1977, 324, pl. 63, fig. 155; Gaitzsch 1980, 381; Goodman 1964, 121, fig. 126; Gummerus 1913, 101, fig. 20; Ryberg 1955, 87, fig. 40; Zimmer 1982, 162, no. 84)
(fig. 2.2)
Adze, possibly adze-hammer, funerary relief in Augsburg (Germany), Römisches Museum. (Kellner 1971, pl. 51; Zimmer 1985, pl. 6, n. 3)
Adze, funerary relief, Autun, Musée Rollin d’Autun. Depicted with a bucksaw; short handled, lugs above and below blade, hammer(?) opposite sharply angled blade. (CIL 13.2721; Gaitzsch 1980, 380, pl. 64, fig. 306)
Adze, funerary relief from Bordeaux, Musée d’Aquitaine, Bordeaux, inv. 60.1.83. Known as the “Bearded Carpenter of Bordeaux,” the craftsman holds a short-handled adze-hammer in his right hand and a ruler in his left. (Adam 1994, 98, fig. 223; CIL 13.644; Espérandieu 1908, 1117)
Adze-Plane (“Ascia-Hobel” variants)
Adze-plane, funerary relief from Isola Sacra (Ostia). A hand-adze (“ascia-Hobel” variant) is shown on a plaque depicting a knife sharpener at work. Isola Sacra (Ostia), tomb 29. Mid-second century. (Becatti 1951, pl. 68; Gaitzsch 1985, 190, fig. 1b; Squarciapino 1941, 14; Zimmer 1982, 183, no. 117; id. 1985, pl. 4.2)
(fig. 3.5)
Adze-plane, funerary relief of P. Ferrarius Hermes, from Bientina (near Pisa), Italy, Archaeological Museum, Florence, inv. 1914. The tool is shown with a ruler, plumb line, and square. (CIL XI 1471; Felletti Maj 1977, 350, pl. 74, fig. 180; Gaitzsch 1980, 379, pl. 61.299; Gummerus 1913, nr. 84, fig. 31; Goodman 1964, 189; Matthäus 1984, 91, fig. 15; Zimmer 1982, 166, no. 90)
(fig. 3.4)
Adze-plane, funerary relief of P. Beitenos Hermes, a bed maker, Louvre, inv. MA 934. The tool is shown with calipers and a square. From Greece (province unknown), Roman imperial period. (Burford 1973, 182, fig. 8; Matthäus 1984, 99, fig. 23; Richter 1966, 127, fig. 612; Strong 1976, fig. 271)
(fig. 3.6)
OTHER RENDITIONS
Adze-hammer with straight handle, among miniature models of tools in bronze from the British Museum, acquired in 1854. (Goodman 1964, 24, fig. 13)
Small adze, gold on glass, from the Catacombs of Saturninus, Rome, Museo Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana, inv. 60788. A shipwright uses a short-handled adze to shape a plank. Early fourth century. (Blümner 1875 (II) 343, fig. 58; Gaitzsch 1980, 384, pl. 73, fig. 320c; Gaitzsch and Matthäus 1981, 213, fig. 11; Garrucci 1864, 171; Goodman 1964, 119, fig. 123; Liversidge 1976, 158, fig. 264; Mercer 1960, 152; Morey 1959, pl. 16, no. 96; Neuburger 1919, 77, fig. 117; Richter 1966, 128, fig. 613; Squarciapino 1941, 44)
Auger (bits)
ACTUAL EXAMPLES
Spoon bit, iron, Museum of London, inv. 1529. Squared tang, 14 cm long.
Spoon bit, iron, Naples Museum, inv. 120737. Shaft square in section, 18.3 cm long. (Ciarello and De Carolis 1999, 130)
Twisted bit, iron, with spiral cutting point, Aquileia, Museo Nazionale. 12 cm long by 1 cm diameter. (Gaitzsch 1985, fig. 5.f)
Twisted bit, iron, with spiral cutting point, Aquileia, Museo Nazionale, inv. 19721. 15.2 cm long by 1 cm diameter. (Gaitzsch 1985, fig. 5.g)
Axe and Hatchet
ACTUAL EXAMPLES
Double-bladed axes
Double-bladed axehead, iron, Pompeii, Naples Museum, inv. 286771. 28 cm long, blade 9.7 cm wide. First century. (Ciarello and De Carolis 1999, 123.78; Petrie 1917, 13, pl. 12.40)
Single, curving blade (Manning 1985, 16; Type 4)
Axehead, beaten copper, Monte Rovello (Rome), Italy. Curved edge, oval eye flared on top and bottom. (Petrie 1917, 11. pl. 0.4)
Axehead, iron, Coldham Common, U.K., British Museum inv. 1870.12–8.45. 17.2 cm long, oval eye. (Manning 1985, 16, B4)
Axeheads, iron, five of similar design, Silchester, Reading Museum, U.K. All have gently curving blades, flat butts, oval eyes, lengths 19–20 cm, slightly curved cutting edges 7.5–8.5 cm long, 1.3–1.5 kg. (Evans 1894, 147, fig. 12; Goodman 1964, 23, fig. 12)
Axehead, iron, Pompeii, Naples Museum, inv. 286770. 19.2 cm long, blade width 7.3 cm (Ciarello and De Carolis 1999, 122.77)
Single, curving blade with lugs on top and bottom
Axehead, iron, Silchester, Reading Museum, U.K. 25.5 cm long, slightly curved cutting edge 7 cm wide, 1.65kg.
Hatchet, iron, Gorhambury, St. Albans, U.K. Triangular in longitudinal section, 14 cm long, lugged oval eye, 2.9 cm long, poll has two vertical notches on back face. (Neal 1990, 138, fig. 131.363)
Single blade, straight or gently curving, cutting edge roughly same width as poll (Manning 1985, 15, Type 1)
Axehead, iron, London, British Museum inv. 1917.12–3.1. 22.8 cm long, round eye. (Manning 1985, 15, B1)
Axehead, iron, Verulamium, 19.1 cm long, 1.8 kg, A.D. 155–60. (Frere and Manning 1972, 165, no. 7) (fig. 3.12)
Single blade, straight top with lower curve to produce a broad cutting edge
Heavy felling axe (Manning 1985, 15 Type 2)
Axehead, iron, Combend, Gloucestershire, British Museum inv. 1810.2–10.5/6. 23 cm long, heavy poll with round eye. (Manning 1985, 15, B2)
Axehead, iron, London, British Museum inv. 1856.7–1.1420. 21.4 cm long, oval eye (Manning 1985, 15, B3)
Axehead, iron, Pompeii, Naples Museum, inv. 286769. 21.5 cm long, blade 18 cm wide; the butt end of the axe is thick (5.5 cm) and therefore heavy. First century. (Ciarello and De Carolis 1999, 122.75).
Single blade, both top and bottom faces flare to produce a broad cutting edge; smaller blades for lighter carpentry work (Manning 1985, 16, Type 3)
Axehead from Sandy, Bedfordshire, British Museum inv. 1915.12–8.337. 15.0 cm long, oval eye, curved blade. (Manning 1985, 16, B4)
Dolabra, with blade and opposed pick
Five axeheads, iron, Newstead, Scotland, Museum of Scotland, Edinburgh. The smallest measures 36 cm long with a blade 9 cm wide weighing 1.2 kg. The largest is 46 cm long with a blade 10 cm wide weighing 2.72 kg. Second century. (Curle 1911, pl. 57.1–5)
(fig. 3.14)
RELIEF SCULPTURE
Double-bladed axe, funerary relief of Eutyches from Priolo, Sicily, Museo Nazionale in Syracuse. 1.07 x 0.46 x 0.39 m. Third–fourth century. (Adam 1994, 99, fig. 228; Colini 1958, 618, no. 57; Gaitzsch and Matthäus 1981, 210, fig. 5; Goodman 1964, 46, fig. 43; Gummerus 1913, 90; Orsi 1891, 359; Zimmer 1982, 142, no. 61)
(fig. 3.15)
Double-bladed axe and pickaxe, terra-cotta relief from tomb 29, Isola Sacra (Ostia). The tools are shown on a plaque depicting a knife sharpener at work. (References under Adze-plane)
(fig. 3.5)
Trajan’s column, multiple renditions. Refer to fig. 3.13.
Axe-Adzes
See Adze-Axes, above.
Axe-Hammer
Axe-hammer, iron, Augst, Landesmuseum, Zurich. (Goodman 1964, 25, fig. 14b)
Chisels and Gouges
ACTUAL EXAMPLES
Mortising chisels, socketed handle
Chisel, iron, Museum of London, inv. 23317. 26.3 cm long, blade width 2.2 cm; socketed handle with a flange (3.5 cm diameter) that has cracked from hammering.
Chisel, iron, Museum of London, inv. 19159. 29.6 cm long (exactly one Roman foot), blade width ca. 1.5 cm; heavy construction, for timber framing, socketed with opening 3 cm in diameter and 9 cm deep.
Chisels, group of four socketed iron tools found in 1890 at Silchester. Two of these are 25.5 cm long; socket opening ca. 2.5 cm; the third ca. 21.5 cm long, the fourth 17.5 cm long, blade widths between 1.3 and 2 cm. (Evans 1894, 149, fig. 15)
Chisel, iron, socketed, Augst, inv. 64.11454. 24.6 cm long, blade width 1.05 cm, socket opening 2 cm, heavy construction with sharply tapered cutting edge. (Mutz 1980, 127, fig. 17)
Chisel, iron, socketed, Augst, inv. 64.11455. 25.1 cm long, blade width 1.10 cm, socket opening 2 cm, heavy construction with sharply tapered cutting edge. (Mutz 1980, 127, fig. 18)
Mortising chisels, tanged handle
Chisel, iron, tanged, Caerleon. 11.8 cm long, rectangular cross section, slightly waisted, cutting edge damaged. (Evans and Scott 2000, 393, cat. 27)
Chisel, iron, tanged, Augst, inv. 64.11462. 19.1 cm preserved length, blade width 6.3 mm, tang not fully preserved, thick shaft with sharply tapered cutting edge. (Mutz 1980, 127, fig. 15)
Chisel, iron, tanged, Augst, inv. 64.11463. 15.8 cm preserved length, blade width 9 mm, only base of tang preserved as well as iron reinforcing ring for wooden handle, thick shaft with sharply tapered cutting edge. (Mutz 1980, 127, fig. 16)
Mortising chisels, solid, one-piece handle or fragmentary
Chisel, iron, Caerleon. Rectangular cross section, angled cutting edge, no evidence of method of handle attachment, 9.2 cm preserved length. (Evans and Scott 2000, 393, cat. 26)
Chisel, iron, Silchester, 21.5 cm long. (Evans 1894, 149, fig. 15)
Chisel, iron, Museum of London, inv. 1893. 17.5 cm long, narrow blade width (.07 cm) suggests fine cabinetry work; evidence of hammer marks on the butt end. (Wheeler 1930, pl. 32.11)
(fig. 3.10)
Chisel, iron, Gorhambury. Fragment 5 cm long, includes preserved sharply splayed blade, ca. 2 cm wide, with bevel on one side; stem is square in section. (Neal 1990, 140, fig. 131.377)
Paring chisels (thin blade with bilateral taper), socketed handle
Paring chisel, iron, socketed, Augst, inv. 64.11450. 28.8 cm long, blade width 3.10 cm, socketed opening ca. 2 cm, gently flaring blade. (Mutz 1980, 129, fig. 5.19)
Paring chisel, iron, socketed, Augst, inv. 64.11452. 22.7 cm long, blade width 2.08 cm, socketed opening ca. 2 cm. (Mutz 1980, 129, fig. 5.20)
Paring chisel, iron, socketed, Augst, inv. 64.11452. 28.4 cm long, blade width 9.6 mm, socketed opening ca. 2.25 cm; wooden handle partially preserved with iron reinforcing ring. (Mutz 1980, 129, fig. 5.21)
Paring chisels, tanged handle
Paring chisel, iron with wooden handle, tanged, from Aquileia, inv. 80697. Length, including handle, 28.6 cm; wooden handle was turned on a lathe, with a mushroom-shaped butt, reinforced with a bronze collar at attachment point; slightly waisted blade, thin cutting edge. (Gaitzsch 1980, 363, pl. 38, no. 181) (fig. 3.16)
Paring chisel, iron, with tanged handle, Camulodunum. (Hawkes and Hull 1947, 343, pl. 105, 6) Paring chisel, iron, tanged, Museum of London, inv. 19763. 17.5 cm long, slightly waisted, from 11 to 17 mm; blade width 17 mm, tang 5 cm long
Paring chisels, solid handle
Paring chisel, iron, Verulamium. Solid handle 21.1 cm long, A.D. 155–60. (Frere and Manning 1972, 164, no. 10)
Paring chisel, iron, Verulamium. Solid handle and partial blade, 16 cm long, A.D. 270–75. (Frere and Manning 1972, 164, no. 11)
Gouges, socketed handle
Gouges, group of five socketed iron tools found in 1890 at Silchester:
a. 31.5 cm long, stem octagonal, 1.4 cm channel, ground on outside, possible turning tool for use on a lathe;
b. 30.5 cm long, octagonal stem, 2 cm channel, ground on inside;
c. 25.8 cm long, round stem, 2.5 cm semicircular cutting channel;
d. 27 cm long, nearly square stem, 1.3 cm channel, ground on both sides;
e. 26.1 cm long, round stem, 1.3 cm channel, ground on both sides. (Evans 1894, 150, fig. 16)
(fig. 3.18)
Gouge, socketed gouge, iron, Caerleon, Wales, inv. 65.170A. 28.1 cm long, round stem, with evidence of hardening on the inside. Dated to second–third century. (Tylecote in Zienkiewicz 1986, 195, fig. 68.23)
Gouges, tanged handle
Gouge, iron, Museum of London, inv. 16267. Tanged handle, 14.7 cm long; possibly used as an auger blade(?).
Gouges, solid handle
Gouge, iron, Museum of London, inv. 19891. Nearly cylindrical in form with solid handle, 12 cm long, cutting tip 6 mm wide.
Gouge, iron, Museum of London, inv. 16267. Tanged handle, 14.7 cm long; possibly used as an auger blade(?).
RELIEF SCULPTURE
Paring chisel, tanged, without handle, Frascati (Italy), British Museum inv. 1954.12–14.1. On right margin of relief of Publius Licinius Philonic(os) and P. Licinius Demetrius. Early imperial period. (Goodman 1964, 162, fig. 161; Kleiner 1977, 196, no. 3; Manning 1985, P1.1; Zimmer 1982, 191, cat. 128)
(fig. 3.20)
Paring chisel, broad flaring cutting edge, Vatican Museums, inv. 9277. Depicted hanging on the wall of a knife seller’s shop. First century. (Blümner 1884.4, 371, fig. 60; Burford 1972, fig. 36; Zimmer 1982, 180, no. 114)
(fig. 3.25)
Paring chisels and tanged chisel, funerary relief from tomb 29 at Isola Sacra (Ostia). Three broad-bladed paring chisels and two narrower chisels (one tanged) are shown on a plaque depicting a knife sharpener at work. Second century. (References under Adze-plane)
(fig. 3.5)
PAINTING
House of the Vettii, Ixion Room, Pompeii (VI, 15,1). Ca. A.D. 70, Icarus and Daedalus, a tanged chisel is being used by Icarus to cut mortises. (Clarke 1991, 224, fig. 132; Gaitzsch 1980, pl. 22, fig. 117)
(fig. 3.17)
OTHER RENDITIONS
Chisel being struck by a mallet, gold leaf on glass, from the Catacombs of Saturninus, Rome, Museo Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana, inv. 60788. The broad blade of the tool suggests a paring chisel, but it is being used as if cutting mortises. Early fourth century. (References under Adze)
(fig. 3.23)
Drawknife
ACTUAL EXAMPLES
Drawknife, iron, Königsforst, Rheinisches Landesmuseum, Bonn, inv. 75.1708. Blade length 15.5 cm, width at center 2.8 cm, tangs attached at ninety degrees to curved cutting edge. (Gaitzsch 1980, 376; pl. 56.280)
Drawknife, iron, London, Museum of London, inv. 19167. Blade length 11.8 cm, width at center 2.90 cm, tangs concealed by modern restored handles, attached thirty degrees from straight cutting edge.
(fig. 3.10)
Drawknife, iron, Pompeii (I, 15), Naples Museum, inv. 286780. Total length, 60 cm, blade length 46 cm, gently arched, width at center 5 cm, tang length 7 cm. Handles are not inclined toward the direction of the blade. (Ciarallo and De Carolis 1999, 128, fig. 97; Gaitzsch 1980, pl. 31, fig. 132)
Drill Bits
ACTUAL EXAMPLES
Drill bit, iron, pyramidal tang, Gorhambury, St. Albans, U.K. 11.3 cm long, simple pointed bit, tang 5 cm long. (Neal 1990, 138, fig. 131.371)
Drill bit, iron, pyramidal tang, Museum of London, inv. 13667. 16 cm long, tang 7 cm long.
Drill bit, iron, fragment, Caerleon. 12.6 cm long, shaft is circular in cross section, with pyramidal point. (Evans and Scott 2000, 393, cat. 28)
Drill bit, iron, pyramidal tang, square in section, Augst, inv. 64.11465. 14.1 cm long, tang 5.6 cm long, terminates in a simple point. (Mutz 1980, 128, fig. 3.14)
Drill (spoon) bit, iron, pyramidal tang, square in section, Augst, inv. 64.11464. 19.3 cm long, tang 6.3 cm long, width of spoon 1.10 cm. (Mutz 1980, 126, fig. 3.13)
RELIEF SCULPTURE, SEE “DRILL, BOW TYPE,” “DRILL, STRAP TYPE” PAINTING, SEE “DRILL, BOW TYPE,” “DRILL, STRAP TYPE” OTHER RENDITIONS, SEE “DRILL, BOW TYPE”
Drill, Bow Type
ACTUAL EXAMPLES
Bit (iron), wooden stock, and cap, London, University College, inv. 27979. From Hawara, Egypt (Roman period), total length, 55 cm. (Petrie 1917, 39, pl. 51, M 15)
(fig. 3.19)
RELIEF SCULPTURE
Bit, drill stock, and bow, British Museum inv. 1954.12–14.1. Funerary relief of Publius Licinius Philonic(os) and P. Licinius Demetrius, Frascati (Italy). Early imperial period. (References under Paring chisels)
(fig. 3.20)
Bow and arrows, funerary relief of Monimus, Mainz, Landesmuseum, inv. S166. The objects are held in the hands of the deceased. First half of the first century A.D. (CIL 13.7041; Selzer 1988, 153, cat. 80; Stribrny 1987, no. 8). The image is included for comparative purposes.
(fig. 3.22)
Bit, drill stock, and bow depicted on funerary altar of Eutyches, Priolo, Sicily, Syracuse, Museo Nazionale. The handle is shown with compound, turned moldings, terminating in a nearly spherical butt. (Adam 1994, 99, fig. 228; Gaitzsch 1980, pl. 67, fig. 303; and see additional references under Axe, relief sculpture)
(fig. 3.21)
PAINTING
House of the Vettii, Ixion Room, Pompeii. Icarus and Daedalus, a bow and drill lie on the floor under the carpenter’s bench depicted in the foreground. Mid-first century A.D. (References under Chisels and Gouges, painting)
(fig. 3.17)
OTHER RENDITIONS
Bow and drill being used by a standing craftsman, gold leaf on glass, from the Catacombs of Saturninus, Rome, Museo Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana, inv. 60788. Note that the craftsman’s left hand (holding the drill) should be placed on the top of the handle, not in the center. Early fourth century. (References under Adze, other renditions)
(fig. 3.23)
Drill, Strap Type
RELIEF SCULPTURE
Two men operate the strap drill while carving a sarcophagus, Urbino, Museo Archeologico Lapidario. Sarcophagus of Eutropos, found on the Via Labicana (Rome). Mid-fourth century. (Adam 1994, 39, fig. 74; Blümner 1875 (III), 220, fig. 28; CIG 4.9598; Colini 1958, 613, no. 27; Gaitzsch 1980, 383, pl. 72, fig. 318; Gummerus 1913, 95; Strong and Brown 1976, 199, fig. 327)
(fig. 3.24)
Files and Rasps
ACTUAL EXAMPLES
File, iron with tang, Naples Museum, inv. 286779. Ca. 23 cm long, 4 cm wide, tanged, handle missing, corroded surface. Before A.D. 79. (Ciarallo and De Carolis 1999, 127, fig. 95)
File, iron with “cranked” tang (bent like the handle of a trowel), Silchester. Cutting face 19 cm long, 2.3 cm maximum width, filed teeth on flat surface, ca. 5 rows per 2.5 cm, in parallel rows but at a slight bias to the sides of the file; thus probably used for working wood. (Evans 1894, 152, fig. 19)
File, iron, London, Museum of London, inv. 19863. Tapering blade 18 cm long, tang concealed by modern restored handle, average blade width 2 cm, triangular in cross section, with a flat bottom and two shorter sloping faces, teeth, finely spaced on all sides. Presumably used for sharpening metal cutting edges.
Rasps (distinguished by a convex cutting face)
Rasp, iron, tanged, Augst, inv. 64.11466. Total length 28.3 cm, width 2.2–0.70 cm, tang reinforced by an iron rim (wood handle now missing). (Mutz 1980, 123, fig. 2.6)
Hammers and Mallets
ACTUAL EXAMPLES
Hammer, iron, with tang, Naples Museum, inv. 7188. Head width 10 cm, overall length 20 cm. The corroded head probably included a claw. A second, similar hammer measuring 27 cm long is also numbered as 7188. First century.
Hammer, iron, with tang, Naples Museum, inv. 411. Head width 6.5 cm, overall length 13.3 cm. First century.
Hammer, iron, with long handle, forged from one piece, Naples Museum, inv. 428. Clawed head 11 cm long, overall length 27.5 cm. First century.
Hammer, iron, head, socketed, with nail in socket, Verulamium Museum, St. Albans, U.K., inv. 856.1501. 8 cm long.
Mallet, wooden, Comacchio Museum, inv. 56394. Head width 21.6 cm, overall length 37.2 cm. The handle is inserted so that the head strikes on the end-grain. The mallet was made of ash (fraxinus) and holm oak (ilex). First century B.C. (Desantis in Berti 1990, 281, no. 292)
Mallet, wooden, Comacchio Museum, inv. 55077. Single-piece construction with grain of handle and head aligned, head length 22.4 cm; with handle total length 34.4 cm. (Desantis in Berti 1990, 285 no. 295; similar examples are illustrated in this catalog)
RELIEF SCULPTURE
Mallet, waisted, from a funerary relief found in Italy. (Blümner 1884, 92, fig. 2) Mallet, waisted, on a dedicatory relief in the Antiquarium del Celio, Rome
(fig. 3.45)
Mallet, waisted, used by a Roman soldier to pound a wooden pile, Trajan’s column, Rome, A.D. 113.
(fig. 3.42)
Mallet, waisted, used by a Roman soldier to hit a heavy chisel, Trajan’s column, Rome, A.D. 113 (Gaitzsch 1980, pl. 64, fig. 305)
(fig. 3.41)
PAINTING
House of the Vettii, Ixion Room, Pompeii. Icarus and Daedalus. Icarus holds a socketed mallet to strike a tanged chisel. Ca. A.D. 70. (References under Chisels and Gouges, painting)
Lathe
RELIEF SCULPTURE
Depiction of a lathe operated by a wheel (?), part of a scene of a furniture maker’s shop, Museo Capitolini (Montemartini), inv. 2743; Museo della Civiltà Romana, inv. 3408. (Colini 1947, 21, fig. 1; Gaitzsch 1980, pl. 65.309; Goodman 1964, 121, fig. 127; Liversidge 1950, 27, pl. 2.b; Strong and Brown 1976, 159, fig. 265; Van Buren AJA 52 (1948) pl. 50.B)
(fig. 2.3)
Partial depiction of a horizontal lathe operated by a bow, from a Roman-period sarcophagus from Greece. (Kontoleon 1890, 333; Rieth 1940, 99)
(fig. 3.27)
Plane
ACTUAL EXAMPLES
Italy
Pompeii, plane, single (rear) handle, iron with wooden core (House of Marcus Lucretius, IX.3.5), Naples Museum, inv. 71964. Smoothing, 21.3 cm long by 6.2 cm wide by 5 cm high; the blade, 3.5 cm wide, projects 6.5 cm from the top face, cutting angle, 50 degrees. Before A.D. 79 (Ciarello and De Carolis 1999, 127.96; Gaitzsch 1980, 113; Gaitzsch and Matthäus 1981, 231, fig. 39; Goodman 1964, 44, fig. 39; Greber 1956, 70, fig. 37)
(fig. 3.2)
Pompeii, plane, iron and wood (similar in form and dimensions to the previous entry, except that the iron is broken off at the top), Naples Museum. 21 cm long by 6 cm wide by 5 cm high; the blade is 4 cm wide, cutting angle ca. 50 degrees. Before A.D. 79. (Gaitzsch 1980, 113; Goodman 1964, 44, fig. 39; Greber 1956, 70, fig. 37)
Other Mainland Europe
Cologne (Colonia Agrippina), plane, iron sole and side walls, top fretted metalwork, Rheinisches Landesmuseum, Bonn, inv. 36.199. 32.4 cm long by 5.3 cm wide by 4.5 cm high; toothed iron 17.6 cm long by 4 cm wide, rake, 53 degrees. Second century. (Gaitzsch 1980, 379, pl. 60.296; Gaitzsch and Matthäus 1981, 216–17, figs. 14–15; id. 1985, pl. 2; Goodman 1964, 50; Greber 1956, 83, fig. 42; Liversidge 1976, 160, fig. 266; Long and Steedman 2002, 18, fig. 3)
(fig. 3.31)
Feldberg, plane, iron sole, four rivets, side plates (no longer attached to the sole), Saalburg-Museum, inv. FMa 165. 36.8 cm long by 4.8 cm wide by 5.5 cm high; iron 3.2 cm wide, rake ca. 65 degrees. (Gaitzsch and Matthäus 1981, 222, figs. 21–24; Goodman 1964, 43; Greber 1956, no. 87, fig. 44.c)
Miltenberg, plane, iron sole with four rivets, Museum Miltenberg. 33 cm long by 4.4 cm wide by 6.3 cm high; rake ca. 62 degrees. (Gaitzsch and Matthäus 1981, 224, figs. 27–28)
Saalburg, plane, iron sole and beechwood stock, front and rear grips cut into the wood (the front grip is intact), Saalburg-Museum, inv. SHa 571. 38 cm long by 4.8 cm wide by 5.5 cm high; iron 2.4 cm wide, 14.4 cm long, rake, 50 degrees. Second–third century. (Gaitzsch and Matthäus 1981, 214–15, figs. 12–13; Goodman 1964, 44, fig. 40; Greber 1956, no. 87, fig. 44.d; Liversidge 1976, 159)
Seltz (Saletio), plane, iron sole with four rivets, Historisches Museum Hagenau. 34 cm long by 4.5 cm wide by 5.5 cm high; iron 3 cm wide, cutting angle not preserved. Third century. (Gaitzsch 1980, 113; Gaitzsch and Matthäus 1981, 225, fig. 29; Schaeffer 1927; Goodman 1964, 46; Greber 1956, no. 92)
Steinkritz, plane, iron sole with four rivets, Saalburg-Museum, inv. S 3171, early publications assign the find to Saalburg. 36.2 cm long by 5.0 cm wide by 4.9 cm high; iron ca. 3.30 cm wide, rake ca. 65 degrees. (Gaitzsch and Matthäus 1981, 223, figs. 25–26; Greber 1956, no. 87, fig. 44.b)
Zugmantel (Kastell), plane, iron sole, rivets, side plates, Saalburg-Museum, inv. ZM 5108. 35.2 cm long by 4.4 cm wide by 5.5 cm high; iron 2.8 cm wide, rake ca. 65 degrees. Second–third century. (Gaitzsch and Matthäus 1981, 218, figs. 16–19; Goodman 1964, 43)

United Kingdom
Caerwent (Venta Silurum, Wales), plane, iron sole turned up at both ends, holes for rivets, with blade attached, from House XII, Newport Museum, inv. D2.31. 36.5 cm long by 4.5 cm wide; iron 3 cm wide. (Gaitzsch and Matthäus 1981, 227, figs. 32–33; Goodman 1964, 47, fig. 45)
Caerwent (Venta Silurum, Wales), plane, iron sole similar to previous but badly corroded; from Newport Museum. 32.5 cm long by 5 cm wide; iron 3 cm wide, rake, 66 degrees. (Gaitzsch and Matthäus 1981, 228, figs. 34–35; Goodman 1964, 50, fig. 51)
Goodmanham (East Yorkshire), plane, iron sole turned up at both ends, three rivets, ivory stock, blade attached. 33.0 cm long by 6.0 cm wide by 8.5 cm high; iron 4.0 cm wide by 7.5 cm long, rake 65 degrees. Before late fourth century. (Long and Steedman 2002)
Silchester (Calleva), plane, iron sole, four rivets, side plates, Reading Museum, inv. 07490. 34 cm long by 5.8 cm wide by 6 cm high; iron 3.8 cm wide, rake 65 degrees. Fourth century. (Boon 1974, 282, fig. 41, 10; Evans 1894, 151, fig. 18; Gaitzsch 1980, 113; Gaitzsch and Matthäus 1981, 229, fig. 36; Goodman 1964, 48, figs. 48, 49; Long and Steedman 2002, 18, fig. 4; Mercer 1960, 115, fig. 110; Petrie 1917, 39, pl. 78, M139)
(fig. 3.32)
Verulamium, plane, iron sole turned up at both ends, and four rivets, Verulamium, St. Albans Museum, U.K. 43.9 cm long by 8.4 cm wide by 7 cm high; iron not preserved, probably a jack plane. ca. A.D. 300. (Frere and Manning 1972, 166, fig. 61.14, pl. 50a; Gaitzsch 1980, 378, pl. 59.294; Gaitzsch and Matthäus 1981, 226, figs. 30–31; Goodman 1964, 46, fig. 44; Long and Steedman 2002, 18, fig. 3; McWhirr 1971, 37)
(fig. 3.32)

Egypt
Kom Washim, plane, molding (rounding), Cairo Museum, Egypt. Only the wooden handle survives; ca. 16 cm long by 9.5 cm high by 5 cm thick; Roman period. (Goodman 1964, 41, fig. 38)
PLANE BLADES (IRONS)
Mainland Europe
Augst, 4 plane blades, iron:
a. 15.2 cm long by 2.25 cm wide by 4 mm thick; inv. 64.11459;
b. 17.3 cm long by 1.8 cm wide by 4 mm thick; inv. 64.11458;
c. 18.4 cm long by 3.3 cm wide by 3 mm thick; inv. 64.11457;
d. 23.5 cm long by 2.85 cm wide by 3.5 mm thick; inv. 64.11456. (Mutz 1980, 125, fig. 3)
(fig. 3.30)
England, Scotland, Wales
Caerleon (Wales), plane blade, iron, Roman Legionary Museum. 16 cm long.
Gorhambury, 2 plane blades, iron. The better preserved of the two is rectangular, one convex face, and pierced by a rectangular hole; 18 cm long and 4 cm wide. Late second–third century. (Neal 1990, 138, fig. 131.367)
Newstead, molding blade, iron, found in a ditch of the early fort, 14.2 cm long, cutting head 2.5 cm wide. (Curle 1911, pl. 59, no. 2)
RELIEF SCULPTURE
Italy
Plane (jack), funerary relief, Museo Nazionale d’Abruzzo, L’Aquila, inv. 888. Front and rear grips cut into the stock, depiction of tool against blank background. Late first or early second century. (Adam 1994, 98, fig. 224; Colini 1958, 619, no. 62; Gaitzsch 1981, 209, fig. 4; Goodman 1964, 45, fig. 42; Greber 1956, fig. 40; Zimmer 1982, 163, no. 85)
(fig. 3.34)
Plane, funerary relief of Eutyches from Priolo, Sicily, Museo Nazionale in Syracuse. Front and rear grips cut into the stock. Late third–early fourth century. (Gaitzsch 1980, 380, no. 302; additional references under Axe, relief sculpture)
(fig. 3.15)
Plane, funerary relief, in use by a craftsman standing at a bench, sarcophagus, Vatican, Museo Gregoriano Profano, inv. 3262. Mid-third century. (References under Adze, relief sculpture)
(fig. 3.8)
Plane (jack), funerary relief, sandstone, from Kastel-Staadt (Trier-Saarburg), Landesmuseum, Trier, inv. 17237. Front and rear grips cut into the stock are held by a carpenter standing at a bench. (Gaitzsch and Matthäus 1981, 211, fig. 7; Goodman 1964, 45, fig. 41; Mosel und Saar 1983, 220, cat. 171)
PAINTING
Man using a long (joining) bench plane, fresco from an officina lignaria, Pompeii, VI, 7.8–9, Naples Museum, inv. 8991. First century. (Bianchi Bandinelli 1950, 175, pl. 82, fig. 166; id. (1973) 299, fig. 123; Ciarello and De Carolis 1999, 121.74; Felletti Maj 1977, 334, pl. 69, 169a-b; Gaitzsch 1980, pl. 27, fig. 137a; Gaitzsch and Matthäus 1981, 212, fig. 8; id. 1985, pl. 10; Greber 1956, 73, fig. 38; Malten 1912, 241, fig. 4)
OTHER RENDITIONS
Long (joining) bench plane used by a shipwright standing at his bench, gold leaf on glass, from the Catacombs of Saturninus, Rome, Museo Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana, inv. 60788. The craftsman pushes the tool with his right hand and guides it with his left. Early fourth century. (Full references under Adze)
(fig. 3.23)
Planes depicted as mint marks on Roman republican silver (denarius) coinage:
a. flat sole, arched at throat, iron depicted; moneyer L. Roscius Fabatus 64 B.C. (Fava 1969, pl. B, 90–91; Gaitzsch 1980, 384, pl. 74, fig. 321a);
b. wood(?) stock, two handgrips, iron depicted; depicted on the same coin as a;
c. wood(?) stock, handgrip at back, iron depicted, sharply sloped front end, moneyer L. Papius, 79 B.C. (Fava 1969, pl. B, 94–95; Gaitzsch 1980, 384, pl. 74, fig. 321c; Gaitzsch and Matthäus 1981, 212, fig. 10)
(fig. 3.29)
Saws
ACTUAL EXAMPLES
Handsaws (triangular blade)
Handsaw, iron, with tang and rivet, Verulamium, St. Albans Museum, U.K. inv. 78.535. Triangular, 41.7 cm long, teeth not set, 8 teeth to inch and 2.5 cm. ca. A.D. 160. (Frere and Manning 1972, 166)
(fig. 3.40)
Handsaw, iron, Naples Museum, inv. 71719. Forged in one piece with frame of handle, triangular, heavily corroded, blade 13.4 cm long, total length, 24 cm. First century.
Handsaw, iron, Historisches Museum, Rathaus, Lucerne, Switzerland. With tang and two rivets, tapering toward the tip, set teeth, raked toward the front; total length ca. 37 cm; teeth on 21 cm of blade, 7–8 teeth to inch and 2.5 cm. (Goodman 1964, 116, fig. 119)
Handsaw, iron, Great Chesterford, Essex, U.K. With tang and iron nail to secure handle, tapering toward the tip; total length ca. 35.7 x 8.3 cm maximum width, 3.5 teeth to inch and 2.5 cm. (Neville 1856, 10, pl. 2.20)
Backed (hand) saw, iron, Landesmuseum, Zurich. Small with tang for handle (missing). (Goodman 1964, 118, fig. 121)
(fig. 3.35)
Bow and frame saws (strap-type thin blade with parallel top and cutting edges, held under tension in a wooden frame)
Blade fragment, iron, Verulamium, St. Albans Museum, U.K. 9.4 cm long, no set to teeth, teeth sloped, 12 teeth to inch and 2.5 cm. A.D. 105–30. (Frere and Manning 1972, 166)
Blade fragment, iron, offset teeth, Landesmuseum, Zurich. (Goodman 1964, 118, fig. 121; Neuberger 1919, 76, fig. 113)
Blade fragment, iron, Pompeii, Naples Museum, inv. 286773. Fragment measures 9.2 cm long by 7.5 cm deep, teeth are set. (Ciarello and De Carolis 1999, 121.74; Gaitzsch 1980, II, no. 309)
Blade fragment, Gorhambury, St. Albans, U.K. Small fragment 4.5 cm long, six teeth to inch and 2.5 cm, teeth not raked. (Neal 1990, 140, fig. 131.375)

Heavy crosscut or band saw (blade with attached handle on either end)
Crosscut saw, blade fragment, iron, Pompeii, Naples Museum, inv. 286772. The fragment measures 12.4 cm long by 11.5 cm high. A handle would have been fitted to each end, according to the most recent analysis. (Ciarello and De Carolis 1999, 123.79)
RELIEF SCULPTURE
Small frame (buck) saws (Gaitzsch Type II, Rahmensägen)
Bucksaw, Altar to Minerva, Capitoline Museums, Rome, inv. 1909. Outwardly bowed handles, back of blade convex, toggle stick. Late first century B.C.–early first century (References under Adze)
(fig. 2.2)
Bucksaw, hanging on the wall of a furniture maker’s shop, Capitoline Museums (Montemartini), inv. 2743; plaster cast in Museo della Civiltà Romana, inv. 3408. Outwardly bowed handles terminate in volutes; no toggle stick depicted. Late first century (?) (References under Lathe)
(fig. 2.3)
Bucksaw operated by two standing men, one in a tunic, the other bare-chested, Isola Sacra, Ostia Museum, inv. 138. The saw depicted is large for its type, nearly shoulder-height. Poorly preserved funerary relief in marble; parts of the frame and the entire blade have been broken off the relief. Handgrips are bowed outward. Late first century. (Calza 1940, 256, fig. 158; Colini 1947, 24, fig. 6; Zimmer 1982, 140, no. 58)
(fig. 3.39)
Bucksaws, two variants on a terra-cotta funerary plaque of a faber ferrarius (blacksmith) from Isola Sacra, Ostia, tomb no. 29:
a. four sides parallel, double toggle sticks indicated(?);
b. handgrips bowed outward; no toggle shown. Mid-second century. (Calza 1931, 536, fig. 20; Calza 1949, 251, fig. 150; Becatti 1951, 134, fig. 68; Fava 1969, cover; Gaitzsch 1980, pl. 69, no. 314; Gaitzsch 1985, fig. 1a; Meiggs 1973, pl. 27; Squarciapino 1941, 12; Zimmer 1985)
Bucksaw, funerary relief, Autun, Musée Rollin d’Autun. Straight blade, grips bowed outward, tension cord held by voluted ends; toggle obscured by adze in foreground.
(References under Adze, relief sculpture)
Large frame saws (Gaitszch Type III, Klobensägen)
Frame saw ripping a long board, from a nineteenth-century drawing. (Goodman 1964, 118, fig. 122; Mercer 1960, 152, fig. 142)
Frame saw, hanging on the wall of a furniture maker’s shop, Rome, Capitoline Museums (now at Montemartini annex). The tool is attached to a long beam of wood, perhaps to serve for ripping boards or as a hand-operated band saw. Late first century (?) (References under Bucksaws)
(fig. 2.3)
Frame saw(?) used in a saw-pit by two sawyers, grave relief from Gaul. (Meiggs 1982, 348)
Crosscut band saw, for operation by two men (Gaitzsch Type IV, Bandsäge). Crosscut saw, Altar to Minerva, Capitoline Museums, Rome. (References under Adze, relief sculpture)
(fig. 2.2)
PAINTING
Large frame saw used in a saw-pit by two sawyers, fresco from an officina lignaria, Pompeii, VI, 7.8–9, Naples Museum, inv. 8991. (Blümner 1875 (II) 346, fig. 60; Meiggs 1982, 348, fig. 14b; additional references under Plane, painting).
(fig. 3.33)
OTHER RENDITIONS
Bucksaw (or large frame saw), gold leaf on glass, from the Catacombs of Saturninus, Rome, Museo Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana, inv. 60788. A shipwright holds the saw in his right hand while steadying the plank in his left. If the artist intended to depict a frame saw for ripping boards, he is in error, as the blade should be in the center of the frame, not at one side. Early fourth century. (References under Adze)
(fig. 3.23)
Bucksaws as mint marks on Roman republican silver coinage:
a. blade side wider than tensioning cord, toggle depicted, moneyer L. Papius, 79 B.C. (Fava 1969, pl. B 94–95; Gaitzsch 1980, 384, pl. 74, fig. 321c);
b. four sides parallel, corners on tensioning side splayed outward; moneyer L. Papius, 79 B.C.; depicted with the crosscut saw in following entry. (Fava 1969, pl. B, 92–93; Gaitzsch 1980, 384, pl. 74, fig. 321e)
(fig. 3.29)
Crosscut two-man saw, mint mark on Roman republican silver coinage, toothed blade slightly arced, handles on both ends depicted; shown with bucksaw (b) of previous entry.
Two miniature model frame saws in bronze, perhaps with sloping teeth, Sussex, U.K., British Museum (Goodman 1964, 24, fig. 13)
Appendix: Archaeological Evidence of Roman Woodworking Tools (A Guide to Select Examples)
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