Index

Ulrich, Roger B.

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Index

Roger B. Ulrich

Roman Woodworking

Index

Author

Roger B. Ulrich

PublisherYale University Press

https://doi.org/10.37862/aaeportal.00107.020

Stable URL: https://aaeportal.com/?id=-18406

Index

abacus (table), 223. See also furniture

abies (fir): in barges, 192; for barrels, 243; for doors, 180–81; forests of, 267, f267; in harbor construction, 86; use at Pompeii, 243; properties of, 240, t240, 241–43, 264, 353n8.12; in retaining walls, 88; for roofs, 149. See also trees (woods), types of

About Trees (De Arboribus, Columella), 241–42

acer (maple): for furniture, 217, 227; properties of, t240, 243–44, 264; for veneer, 235.

trees (woods), types of

Adam, Jean-Pierre, 4, 172

adze. See ascia (adze, axe)

Aebutius, Marcus, f14

Aeneid (Virgil), 248

Agrippa, Marcus, 268, t149

Agrippina, 167

alnus (alder), tree and wood: planked walls of, 101; properties of, 241, 244; in water pipes, 89; in wet conditions, 74, 255. See also trees (woods), types of

amphitheaters: collapse of, 104, 246; framing for, 108–10, f110; timbered covering for, 110, 141–43, f142, 254, 352n8.5; wooden, 90. See also public buildings

amurca, 261. See also preservatives

Ancient and Modern Furniture and Woodwork (Pollen), 213

Andrén, Arvid, 126–27, 137

Andronikos, Manoles, 179

Apennines, 134, 150, 264

Apollodorus of Damascus, 104–5

Apollonius, Marcus Allius, 12

Aquileia, 9, 14, 55; chisel, f27, 27–28; olive press, f58

arca, arcula (box), 229–30. See also furniture

Architectura, De (Vitruvius), 2, 113, 137

architraves: in amphitheaters, 109; dimensions of, 145, 200, 210; etymology, 101–2; in miniature (in furniture), 229; in temple construction, 127–30, 133–35; wood for, 252

Archytas of Tarentum, 57

arcularius (chest-maker), 7, 9

Aristotle, 3

armarium (armoire), 9, 11, 227. See also furniture

arrectarium (stud, wall), 76–77, 99

ars (art), 6–7

artifex (woodworker), 8

ascia (adze, axe), 16, 22, 24, f25. See also tools

ash, tree and wood. See fraxinus (ash)

Astronomica (Manilius), 156–57

Atilius, 104

Atimetus, L. Cornelius, 36, f37

Attic order, 102, 198–200

auger. See terebra (auger, drill)

Augst (Germany), 14

Augusta Treverorum (Trier), 167

Augustus: bathing, 217; building by, 109, 145–46, f149, 149–56, 179; Forum of, 65; funeral pyre of, 257; and harbor construction, 85

Aula Regia (Rome, Domitian’s Palace), t149, 151, f151, 153–55

axe. See ascia (adze, axe)

Baebius Tertius, 12

barges, 2, 64, f64, 66–67, f68, 192

barrels, 37, 243

basilica (Fanum) by Vitruvius, 3–4, 144–48, f146, 158

Basilica Julia (Rome), 145

Basilica Nova (Rome), 149, t149 Basilica Opimia (Rome), 144

Basilica Porcia (Rome), 144

Basilica Sempronia (Rome), 144

“Basilica,” Trier (Germany), t149

Basilica Ulpia (Rome), 147, t149

beams, composite, 129, 145. See also trabs (beam)

Beattock Summit, Scotland, 75, t83. See also Scotland (U.K.)

beech, tree and wood. See fagus (beech)

bed (lectus), 232–35. See also furniture

benches and chairs, 215–23. See also furniture

betulla (birch), 96, 244–45. See also trees (woods), types of

bipennis (double-bladed axe), 22. See also tools

birch, tree and wood. See betulla (birch)

Birley, Robin, 77, 96, 101, 184

Black Sea sarcophagi. See Kertch sarcophagi (Black Sea)

blacksmith (faber ferrarius), 8, 47, 210

Blossius, C., 181

Blümner, Hugo, 3

Boscoreale, 195

botany: classification, 239–40; knowledge of, 3

bow (and drill), 15, 28, 30–32, f32, f33, 38. See also tools

bowls (wooden), 40. See also furniture

box (joint). See joints

box, tree and wood. See buxus (box, boxwood)

boxes (wooden). See loculus (box)

Bradwell (U.K.), 66. See also Britain

Brentford (U.K.), 96. See also Britain

bridges: cantilevers, f107, 107–8; centering for, 176; on coins, 105; construction of, 73; of New England, 79, 106; over the Rhine River, 3–4, 80–83, f82–f83; over the Thames, London, 107; over the Tiber, 78–80, f79; Trajan’s over the Danube, 104–5, f105–f106, 176. See also docks and quays

Britain: beds from, 234; bowls from (wooden), 40; box from, 66; bridge over Thames, 107; combs from, 246; doors from, 179, 184, f185; granaries in, 75; joiner’s dogs from, 57; joints used in, 64, 70; military warehouse in, 77, f77; pier construction in, 64–65, f65, 87–88; planked walls in, 101; post construction in, 75, f77, 77–78, t83; preservation of artifacts in, 2, 4, 73–74; shingles from, 123; signal tower in, 75, 97, 101; tools from, 14, 18, 24, f25, 29–30, f30, 36, 43–44, f44; use of wattle in, 96; wheels from, 209, f209; wooden flooring in, 111, 244; wooden water pipes in, 88–89; wood of artifacts from, 243, 248, 250, 260

British Museum, 14, 217

bronze: doors, 179, 196; in furniture, 222; inlays, 235; models of ships, 60; as roof sheathing, 123; tables, 223, 227; tools, 22, 54, f56; trusses, 141; in wheels, 208–9

Bronze Age, 69–70, f70, 91; Lake Dwellers, 74; wheels, 206, f207

Brown, Frank, 127

building materials: for centering, 173; for domus italica, 167, 169–70; for doors, 178, 180–81. See also individual materials

building projects, responsibility for, 72

butt (joint). See joints buxus (box, boxwood), 231, 235, 240, t240, 245–46. See also trees (woods), types of

Byres, James, 161

cabinet (standing). See armarium (armoire)

Caere. See Cerveteri

Caerleon, 14, 88

Caesar, Julius, 2, 59; bridge over the Rhine River, 3–4, 80–83, f82–f83, 96; house of, 124, 254

Caesarea Maritima (Israel), 85–86, f87

Caligula (Gaius), 192

calipers. See circinus (calipers, compasses)

Calpurnius Siculus, 109

Campania, 169

Campus Martius (Rome), relief of amphitheater, 141–43, f142, 352n8.5. See also Diribitorium (Rome)

canoes, 18

cantherius (rafter), 130, 137, 144, 171. See also roof construction

cantilevers, f107, 107–8, f108, f119, 120

capreolus (beam, brace), 137, 145. See also roof construction

carpentry, 3, 8. See also woodworker

carpentum (cart), 8

carpinus (hornbeam), t240

Casa a Graticcio (Herculaneum). See Craticium House (Herculaneum)

Casa del Fabbro (Pompeii), 11, 14, 228, f229

castanea (chestnut), t240, 246, 266. See also trees (woods), types of

Castione (Parma), 69

Cato, M. Porcius: on household furnishings, 72–73, 218; harvesting wood, 239; on properties of wood, 257, 259–60; treatment for decay, 262

cedar, cedrus, tree and wood, 123, 149–50, 246–47, 264

ceiling construction: coffered, 147–48, 152, 154, 156–57, 160–61, f161–f162, 163–67, f164, 353n8.15; coffers painted, 165, f166; exposed trusses, f146, 147–48, f148; flat, 152–53; general treatments of, 157–58; in private homes, 165; intact example from Herculaneum, 158–59, f159; significance of use, 156–57; vaulted, f151, 151–52, 176; wooden paneled, 159–61, f160. See also roof construction

centering, 172–77. See also roof construction

Cerveteri, 160, f160, f221, 222

chairs and benches, 215–23. See also furniture chariot: use on Capitolium in Rome, 134; wheels of, 202, 209, 251

chest. See arca, arcula (box)

chest-maker (arcularius), 7, 9, 11, 227

chestnut, tree and wood. See castanea (chestnut)

Chew Valley Lake (U.K.), 246. See also Britain

chisel. See scalprum (chisel)

Chiusi, Tomb of the Lion, 160–61, f162

Christian churches, 147, 158, 179

Cicero, M. Tullius, 7, 12, 165–66, 248, 351n2.1, 353n8.14

circinus (calipers, compasses), 52–53. See also tools

cista (container), 227. See also furniture

citrus, tree and wood: drying of, 262; for inlay, 8; Latin name of, t260; properties of, 247; for tables, 227, 235, 244, 248. See also trees (woods), types of

clamps, 57–58. See also tools

Claridge, A., 154

clavus (nail). See nails and pins

Coarelli, F., 143

coaxatio (assemblage of planks), 112, 115, 117

Coenatio Iovis (Rome), t149, 151–54, f154. See also Domitian’s Palace (Rome)

coffers, coffering. See under ceiling construction

coffins, 18, 246, 257

coins, 41, 50, 105, 154, f155

Colchester (U.K.), 234. See also Britain

Colchi, 91

collatio lustralis (tax), 12

collegia (guilds), 9

Collegio degli Augustali (Herculaneum), 188, f189

Colonna, Giovanni, 127, 132–33

Columella, L. Iunius Moderatus, 241–42, 261

columen (ridgepole), 127, f128, 131, 133, t133, 137, f137

columnae (posts), 75

Column of Trajan. See Trajan’s Column

columns, wooden, 101–3, f103, 153

Comacchio, Italy (shipwreck), 40, 231; box, 66, 70; boxwood cargo, 245

compactio (framework), 90

compasses. See circinus (calipers, compasses)

concrete, 3, 61, 83–87, f85–f87, 170

conditioners. See preservatives

conductor (general contractor), 72

construction disasters, 104, 246, 253

contignatio (complete flooring system), 112, f112, f116, 117. See also flooring

copper, 22

Copper Age, 16

Cori, temple at (ancient Cora), 101, 136, f137

Corinthian order, 101, 168, 179, 195

cork, t240

cornus (dogwood), 240, t240, 248. See also trees (woods), types of

corylus (hazel), 248. See also trees (woods), types of

Cosa (Italy), 127

costs: of coffered ceilings, 147, 165; and decision making, 101, 170; estimates of, 73; of furniture, 232; of timbers, 121, 150, 353n8.9. See also social standing

couch (lectus), 232–35. See also furniture

Coulton, J., 141

cradle, 258

craftsmanship, 6–7

cranes, 81

cratibus (wattle), 81

Craticium House (Herculaneum), f99, 99–100

cratis (wattle and daub), 96. See also opus craticium (half-timber construction)

Crouwel, J., 207

cubiculum (bedroom), 107–8, f189, 190–91, 193–94, 201, t201

cultellus, culter (knife), 34. See also tools

cuneus (wedge), 50

cupids, 48, f49, 57, 223, f224

Curia Hostilia (Rome), 125, 136, 145, 166

Curia Julia (Rome), 136, 147, 186

cupressus (cypress): for doors, 179, 198; properties of, 264; range of tree, f249; reverence for, 249, 354n12.5. See also trees (woods), types of

cylindrical containers, 231

cymatium (door molding), 181, 187, 196, 198–99. See also moldings

cypress, tree and wood. See cupressus (cypress)

Dacian wars, 100–101

Daedalus, 7, 71, 215

Damocles, 166

decay, 261–62, 354n12.7. See also rot deforestation, 121

DeLaine, J., 154

Demetrius, P. Licinius, 31, f32

dentes (saw-teeth), 46

derecta (trestles), 81

dimensions: of atria of domus italica, 168, t168, 171; of barges, 192; of beams, 77–78, 256; in bridge building, 78, 82, t83, 105–6; and costs of timbers, 150; of doors, 180–83, 190–92, 197, f200, 200–201, f201; in floor construction, 111, 117–20, 122; of joints, 66, f67; of joists, 114–16; of larch of record size, 109; of piles in retaining walls, t83, 85, 88; of post pits, 75–76; of posts in framing, 92–93; of roof beams, 145–47; of roof pitch, 124; of roof spans, 127–29, t133, 133–34, 136, 148–49, t149, 153, 352n8.1, 352n8.4; of roofs trussed, 138–39, 143; of sawn lumber, 84–86; of stools, 238; of tables, 248; of timbers, 103, 254; of tools, 42–43, f44, f54–55, 54–57; of walls, 100, 116; of water pipes, 88–89; of wheels, 209; of window shutters, 192–93

Dinsmoor, W., 141

Dio, Cassius, 104–5

Diocletian, 150

Dionysius of Halicarnassus, 78

Diribitorium (Rome), 121, t149, 255, 352n7.6

docks and quays, 64–65, f65, 73–74, t83, 85–88. See also bridges

dogwood, tree and wood. See cornus (dogwood)

dolabra (axe), 22, 24, f25. See also tools

Domitian, 156, 166–67

Domitian’s palace (Rome), 149, t149, 150–56, f151, f154; depiction on coin, 154, f155

Domus Augustana. See Domitian’s palace (Rome)

Domus Flavia. See Domitian’s Palace (Rome)

doors: construction materials for, 179–81, 353n9.1; construction of, 197–98; decoration, f195–f196, 196–97, f197; frames and openings for double-leaved, f200; grand entryways, f186, 186–87, f188–f191, 353n9.4; Greek models for, 179, 198–201; interior shuttered, 192–93, f193–f194; parts of, f180; proportions of, 200–201, t201; protection from water, f185; shuttered for shops, 181–84, f182–f185; social status and, 178; tapered, 191; use of glue in, 71; warping, 183

Doric order, 101, 136–37, 163, 198–200

Dosio, G. A., f142

dovetail (joint). See joints

dowels, 51, 64, 66, 129, 205, f205, 210, 248. See also nails and pins

drawknife, 36. See also tools

drill, 30–33. See also tools

ebony, tree and wood. See hebenus (ebony)

L’edilizia nell’antichitá (Giuliani), 4

Egypt: bow drill, 30; boats from, 60, 67; coffins from, 246; furniture of, 213; tools of, 24, 28, 31, f31, 38–39, 41, 43, 51; wooden artifacts of, 2

Eiserne römische Werkzeuge (Gaitzsch), 4

elder, tree and wood, 235, t240. See also trees (woods), types of

elements (earth, air, fire, water), 240–41

elm, tree and wood. See ulmus (elm)

Ennius, 166

Epeios, 7–8

eros (pl. erotes). See cupids

Etruscan artifacts: ceilings, 159–61, f160–f162, 165, 267; and dimensions of temples, t133, 133–34; doors, 179, 191; furniture, 216–17, f221, 221–22, 224–25; and importance of wood, 267; and public buildings, 266; roofs, 94, 125–29, f126, f128–f129, 131, f132; stone bed legs, 38. See also Tuscan atrium

Eutropos (sarcophagus of), 33, f36

Eutyches, 24, f26, 31, 45

Evans, John (Sir), 30

faber, 8, 72

faber carpentarius, 8

faber ferrarius. See blacksmith

faber tignarius, 8, 115

fagus (beech): for cylindrical boxes, 232; for large spans, 169; properties of, 250, 264, 266; for shingles, 123. See also trees (woods), types of

Fanum, Italy, 3–4, 144, 146–47

Farfa, Italy, 183, f185

farmhouse construction, 72

farm implements, 18

fastigium, 123, 124. See also roof construction

felloe. See under wheels

Fendoch, Scotland, 77, f77. See also Scotland (U.K.)

ferrum (blade), 40

fibula (in bridge building), 81, f83

ficus (fig, fig wood), t240, 250. See also trees (woods), types of

Fidenae amphitheater, Italy, 104, 246

finger (joint). See joints

fig, tree and wood. See ficus (fig, fig wood)

fir, tree and wood. See abies (fir)

fire: of A.D. 64, 109; damage, 147, 150, 192; prevention, 112, 121, 123, 150, 254, 268; vulnerability to, 98

Fishbourne (U.K.), 40, 57, 88. See also Britain

fistuca (pile driver), 81

Fitchen, John, 173

Flavian, 109

flooring: anchoring joists in walls, f118, 119, f119–f120, 352n7.5; complete system of (contignatio), 112, f112, f116, 117; construction consistency of, 117–18; construction inconsistency of, 118–22; construction methods, 115–16; on ground floor, 111–12; of upper levels, f112, 112–14, f114, 121–22

foramen (posthole), 75

Fortunatus, Gaius Atilius, 8, 12

Forum of Augustus (Rome), 65

fossa (foundation trench), 97

foundations (substructiones): framing for concrete, 61, 83–87, f85–f87; pile bridges, 78–83, f79–f80, f82–f83; pile dimensions in, f83; piling of, 73–74; post pits and post trenches for, 75–76, 92–93; retaining walls of, f65, 87–88; sleeper beams in, 76–78, f77, f97, 98; wooden pipes, 88–89; wood use for, 258

framing (architectural): bridges, 104–8; cantilevers, f107, 107–8, f108; Iron Age huts, 91–6, f92–f95; theaters and amphitheaters, 108–10, f110

France, 232, 245

fraxinus (ash), 208–9, 232, 241, 251. See also trees (woods), types of

Frere, S., 77

fuel, wood as, 2

fundamenta (foundations), 73

funerary monument depictions: of bow drills, 31–32, f32, f33; of cranes, 211, f211; of levels, f14, f46; of planes, 44–45, f46; of rulers, f14, f17, 55; of saws, 47–48, f47–f48, 50; of strap drills, 33, f36; of tools, 16–18, f17–f18, f20, f26, 52; of wheels, 207, f208; of woodworkers, 8–9, f17, f20

furniture: artifacts of, 213–14; beds and couches, f40, 232–35, f234, 238; benches, 219, f221; boxes, 66–67, 227, 229–31; chairs, f214, 215, f216, f221, 221–22, f222, 353n11.1; chests, 227–31, f229–f230; depicted in sarcophagi, 217–18, f218, f220; joints in, 64, 66, 70; maker of, f20; mythical origins of, 215; and position of patriarch, 218; shelves, 227; stools, 219–21, 238; “table mania,” 248; tables, 223–27, f224–f225, 247–48; three-legged table/stool, 10, f11, f40, f48, 220, 224–27, f226; tools for making, 18, 39–40; veneer, 235–38, f236–f237; of wickerwork, 217–18, f220; woods for, 250, 253

Gaitzsch, Wolfgang, 4, 15–16, 43, 47

Gaius (Roman emperor). See Caligula (Gaius)

Galliazzo, V., 106–7

Gaul, 19, 32, 48

general contractor, 72

Geography (Strabo), 73

Georgics (Virgil), 40, 50, 251, 263

Germany: bridge construction in, f80, 82; granaries, 75, f76; pirates, 18; plane from, f42, 42–43; tool artifacts from, 14; wooden artifacts from, 40, 88, 232, 256

Gibson, S., 154

Giglio shipwreck, Italy, 53, f54, 245

Giuliani, Cairoli, 4, 125, 138–39, 154

Gjerstad, E., 134

Glastonbury (U.K.), 18. See also Britain

glue: in chests, 230–31; with doors, 198; in joints, 59, f60, 70–71; with veneer, 235; working with, 27

Goodburn, Damian, 4

Goodman, William, 4, 47, 54

Goodmanham (U.K.), 43–44. See also Britain

Gordion (Anatolia), 213

Gothic cathedrals, 173

granaries (horrea), 75–76, f76, 111, 119, 156

Greece: doors of, 179, 198–201; roof construction, 141, 144; roof prop-and-lintel origins, 125–26, f126, 130, f131

guilds, 7, 9, f10, 12, 44, f45

Hadrian, 105

Hadrian’s wall. See Vindolanda (U.K.)

half-lap (joint). See joints

half-timber construction, 97–100, f98

halved joint. See joints

hammer. See malleus (hammer, mallet)

Hanson, W. S., 262

harbor construction, 85–87, f87. See also docks and quays

hatchet. See securicula (dovetail, hatchet)

Haterii relief (Rome), 211–12, f212

hazel, tree and wood. See corylus (hazel)

hebenus (ebony), 240, t240, 251–52. See also trees (woods), types of

Herculaneum: artifacts of, 2, 10; atria of, 168, t168; beds and couches from, 39–40, 232–34, f234; boxes from, 231; carbonization of artifacts, 213; ceilings of, 158–59, f159, 165, f166; centering from, f175, 175–76; clamps depicted, 57–58; construction methods of, f99, 99–100; doors of, 179, 200, f200; floors of, 113–15, f114; furniture from, 70, 213–14, 220–22, f221–f222, f224, 227–30, f230, f237, 238, 253; grand entryways of, 188, f189, 190–91; saws depicted, 48, f49; shop doors of, 181–82, f182, 183, f183–f184; tables of, 223, f224, 225–27, f226; tool artifacts of, 13–14; window shutters of, f194; wood of artifacts from, 243, 249, 254, 258

Hermes, P. Ferrarius, f17, 55, 57

hinges, 227, 228, 230–31

Hodge, A. T., 88, 136, 140–41

holly, tree and wood, 235. See also trees (woods), types of

holm oak, tree and wood. See quercus (oak)

Homer, 8, 33, 60, 251

Horace, 227

horn, 235

hornbeam, tree and wood (carpinus), t240. See also trees (woods), types of

horrea. See granaries

House of the Craftsman (Pompeii). See Casa del Fabbro

House of the Mosaic Atrium (Herculaneum), 158–59, f159. See also Herculaneum

House of the Vettii (Pompeii), 28, 31, f31. See also Pompeii

Howe, Thomas, 146–47

hub (of wheel). See under wheels

impages (rail), 190, f190, 198. See also doors

Inchtuthil, Scotland, 139. See also Scotland (U.K.)

insulae (multistoried apartments), 111

Ionic order, 101, 198–200

iron, 23, 28, 31; for battens on wheels, 206; in beds, 234; in drill bits, 32–33; in hammers, 51; joiner’s dogs, 57; knife blade, 36; in saw blades, 49–50; sheathing of piles, 79, f79; soles of planes, 43–44; used in water pipes, 88–89; wedges of, 51; for wheels, 209–10

Iron Age, 18, 76, t83; flooring, 111; timber framing, 91–96, f92–f95; woods for coffins, 257

Ischia di Castro, Italy, 208–9

Isidore (Christian writer): furniture, 215–16; Latin terminology, 15; square, 56

Isola Sacra cemetery, Italy, 24, 47, f50, 223, f225, 235

iuglans (walnut), 207, 253. See also trees (woods), types of

iunctura (joinery), 59

iuniperus (juniper), 253–54. See also trees (woods), types of

ivory, 44, 179, 222, 353n11.1; inlays, 235

Izenour, George, 141

jambs (wooden), 188, f189

joiner’s dog, 57. See also tools

joints: aids to wooden, 59–60, f64; in beds, 233–35; butt joint, 61; choice of, 60–61; corner, f62; dovetail, f63, 64–66, 231; finger or box, 66; glued, 70–71; half-lap, 68; miter, 70; mortise and tenon, 61, f63, 64, f64; names of, 61; saddle or halved, f69, 69–70, f70–f71; scarf, 66–68, f68, f80; for tables, 226

Josephus, 159

juniper, tree and wood. See iuniperus (juniper)

Juvenal, 256

Kertch sarcophagi (Black Sea), 59, f60, 213, 229, 245, 248–49, 253–54

Klein, N. L., 140–41

klismos (chair), 215. See also furniture

knife. See cultellus, culter (knife)

laburnum, tree and wood, t240. See also trees (woods), types of

labyrinth, 7

Lake Nemi, Italy: doors, 179, 192, f193; Genzano, 66, f66; joints in barges, 64, f64; retaining wall, t83, 88; sacred forests of, 268, 353n8.12; wooden barges of, 2, 66–67, f68

language: for practices of carpentry, 3, 8–9; vocabulary for tools, 15

laquearia (coffered ceiling), 156–57, 162

lararium, 151, f151

larch, larix, tree and wood, distribution of tree, f255; properties of, t240, 241–42, 254–55, 268; of record size, 109; for roofs, 149–50, 352n7.6, 352n8.6; for wet conditions, 74, 354n12.7. See also trees (woods), types of

lathe. See tornus (lathe)

Latin terminology: in atrium construction, 171–72; for beams, 91, 101; for beds, 230–32; for bridge building, 80–81, f83; for ceilings, 156, 158, 162–65; for centering, 176–77; for chairs, 213, 215–17, 221–22; confusion with Greek, 250, 253, 353n10.1; for domus italica, 167–68; for doors, 179–81, 198–99; for flooring, 112–13, 352n7.1–352n7.2; for interior work, 178; for joints, 59, 61; for measurements, 54; for postholes, 75; for roofs, 124, 137–38, 144–45, 353n8.8; sources for, 2–6, 8, 179–80, 239; specialized, 15; for tables, 223–28; for tools, 21, 24, 36, 41–42, 47, 57, 64, 84, 351n3.1; for trees (see under individual woods); for walls, 96, 98–100, 352n6.1; for woods, t240, 242–45, 247, 253, t260, 354n12.3, 354n12.8; for woodworker, 59

Latium, 18, 169

lectus (bed or couch), 232–35

level, libella, f19, 45, 53–54. See also tools

lime, tree and wood. See tilia (lime, linden)

linden, tree and wood. See tilia (lime, linden)

Ling, Roger, 100

literature about Roman woodworking: Caesar’s account of bridge building, 80–81; on coffered ceilings, 166; construction disasters, 104; contemporary, 4; description of strap drill, 33; description of wedge in use, 50; about doors, 178; evidence of ceiling construction, 152–53, 156; evidence of wooden furniture, 219; historical, 2–3, 6, 15, 21, 104–5; historical evidence of ceiling treatment, 158; of the lathe, 39–40; literary allusions in construction choices, 156; about properties of wood, 241; on properties of wood, 239; pun, 157; regarding ceilings, 165; wooden theaters, 109. See also individual authors

Littauer, M., 206–7

living conditions of woodworkers, 8–11. See also social standing

Livy, 78, 166, 224, 242

loculus (box), 66–67, 227, 229–30, 231. See also furniture

logging, 150, 263–68. See also trees (woods), types of

London (U.K.), 14, 36, 40, 64–65, 87–88, 107. See also Britain

Longidienus, P. (Ravenna), 18, f20, 230

longurius (pole), 81

looters, 14

lotus, tree and wood, t240

Lucan, 166

Lucretius, 71

Lyceum (Athens), 3

MacDonald, William, 141, 154

machina (crane), 81

MacIntosh, Jean, 224

Maiuri, Amedeo, 99, 158, 171, 213, 227–28, 238

malleus (hammer, mallet), 51. See also tools

mallet. See malleus (hammer, mallet)

Malone, Caroline, 264

Manilius, 156–57, 165

maple, tree and wood. See acer (maple)

marble: doors, 179, 353n9.1; tables, 223–27; trade, 3, 268

Marchetti, Domenico, 78

marquetry, 236

Marsden, Peter, 4

masonry construction, 3

materia (woodwork), 81

Mazois, C. F., 171

measurements, 54. See also dimensions

Meiggs, Russell, 3–4, 121, 249, 263

mensa (table), f218, 220, 223–27, f226, 247–48. See also furniture

Middle East, 2

military: artillery platforms, f19, 91; encampments, 75; mock battles, 254; timber framed buildings, 114; towers, 75, 97, 101; use of wattle, 96; warehouses, 77, f77

Minerva, altar to, 9, f10, 50

moldings: for armoires (armarium), 228–29; for beds, 234–35; in coffered ceilings, 161; craftsmanship of, 1; door (cymatium), 181, 187, 196, 198–99; in interior woodwork, 78; joints for, 70; marble, 124; of sarcophagi, 59, f60, 253–54; tools for, 29, 42–43, window, 192–93

Mols, Stephan, 70, 214, 220, 235, 253, 258

Monimus, the son of Jerombalus, 31–32, f34

mortise and tenon (joint). See joints

Murlo (Italy), 224–25

Museo della Civiltà Romana (Rome), 228

Museo Nazionale (Rome), 192

Museum of London, 14, 21, f21

music hall (odeum), 143

nails and pins (clavi): decorative heads of, holes for, f132; 186; in entryways, 180; in flooring, 112–13, 115; in formwork, 85–86; in foundations, 96–97; in framing, 95; in furniture, 232; in planked walls, 100–101, f102; in roofs and ceilings, 129, 131–33, 157–58, 171; in wheels, 206, 210; in wooden joints, 59, 61, f64, 66–67, f68

Natural History (Pliny), 3

nave (hub). See under wheels

Nemus Aricinum (Italy), 265

Nepos, Cornelius, 123

Nero, 109, 167, 251

New England, 79, 106, 113, 231–32

New Fresh Wharf (Roman London), 87

Newstead, Scotland (Roman fort), 24, f25, 209, f209. See also Scotland (U.K.)

“Noah’s Ark” of Vetulonia (Italy), 60

norma (square), f19, 55, 57. See also tools

North Africa, 173

Numa, 6

oak, tree and wood. See quercus (oak)

O’Connor, C., 105, 106

Octavian, 2. See also Augustus

odeum, 143

Odeum (Augusta Praetoria, Italy) 149, t149, 352n8.6

Odeum of Agrippa (Athens), t149

ogee (molding), 196. See also moldings

oil (of cedar), 247, 261

olea (olive), 8, 21, t240, 242, 255–56. See also trees (woods), types of

Oliva, Raffaele, 171

olive, tree and wood. See olea (olive)

Oplontis (Italy), 2, 179, 194, f194, 200, f200

opus craticium (half-timber construction), 97–100, f98

opus incertum, 99, 352n6.1

opus intestinum, 178

opus vittatum, 116, f116

Ostia, 8, f17; flooring constructions in tabernae, 118–22; harbor construction, 86; joints in ships of, 67, f68

overbuilding, 95, 104, 114

Ovid, 45, 91, 192, 217; properties of wood, 245; on wood, 241, 264

palafitte, 74

Palatine Hill, t83, 91–96, f92, f151; wall painting, 194. See also Domitian’s palace (Rome)

Palladius, 262

palm, tree and wood, 235. See also trees (woods), types of

Pantheon, 141, f142

Papaccio, Valerio, 98, 100

papyrus scrolls, 231

parietes craticii, 99

parquetry, f234, 236–38, f237

perpendiculum (plumb line), 53. See also tools

Petrie, W. M. F., 4, 28

Philonic(os), P. Licinius, 31, f32

Piazza Armerina (Italy), 206, f206 Piggot, S., 202, 204

Pigorini, L., 69

pile, piling (sublica), 73–75, f79, f80, 81

pine, pinus, tree and wood: in barges, 192; for farmhouse construction, 73; in harbor construction, 86; properties of, 256, 264; for roofs, 149; in water pipes, 89, 256; for writing tablets, 354n12.4. See also trees (woods), types of

pipes, wooden, 88–89, f88

Piranesi, Giambattista, 147

Pisa (Italy), f17, 250, 256, 258, 268, 353n9.3

pitched roof construction, 124

plane. See runcina (plane)

Pliny (the Elder): on ash, 251; on beams, 253; on canoes, 18; on chariots, 209; on citrus wood, 247–48; on coffered ceilings, 165; on construction disasters, 246; on door construction, 198; on ebony, 251; epi-graph, 1, 90, 263; on glued joints, 71; on handles, 21; on holm oak, 252; importance of, 2–3, 6, 239; on invention of square, 56; on larch, 254–55; on the lathe, 37–38, 40; on oak, 258; on pile bridge over the Tiber, 78; on pine, 256; on poplar, 257; praise of Temple of Artemis at Ephesus, 12; on roof shingles, 123; on the saw, 46; on sewn ships, 60; on shuttered windows, 193; treatment for decay, 261–62; on veneer, 235–36; on willow, 259; on wood, 74, 240, 243, 245–47; on wooden amphitheaters, 109; on wooden columns, 102; on wooden water pipes, 89; on wood for cylinders, 232. See also Theophrastus

Pliny the Younger, 179, 267

plumb line. See perpendiculum (plumb line)

Plutarch, 6, 78; epigraph, 6

podium, 88

poetic metaphor, 3

Pollen, J., 213, f214

Pollentia, 113

Pompeii: atria of, 168, t168, f169; basilica of, 144; beds and couches from, 233; bread stall in, 101, f102, 352n6.3; carpenters depicted in fresco, 44–45, 48; construction methods in, 99–100; doors from, 179, 200, f200; floors from, 113–18, f116; furniture from, 228, f229, 230; grand entryways in, f186, 187–88, f188, 190, f190, 191, f191, 353n9.4; hammers from, 51; knives from, 36; odeum in, 143; painting of Icarus in, 28, f29, 31; paintings of doors in, 194–95, f195, 196, f196–f197; planes found in, 43; planked walls of, 101, f102; preservation of artifacts from, 2, 9–11; roof construction in, 149, t149; saws depicted in, 48; squares from, f56, 56–57; tool artifacts of, 13–14, 16, 24; wood of artifacts of, 243, 249, 254

Pompey, 109

Pons Sublicius (over the Tiber, Rome), 78–80

poplar, populus, tree and wood, 86, 235, t240, 257

Portchester (U.K.), 246. See also Britain

posts, definition of, 73. See also foundations

preparation of timber, 72

preservation: of ceiling, 158–59, f159; of sarcophagi, 213; in wet conditions, 2, 4, 14, 73–74, 96, 179. See also rot

preservatives (and conditioners), 261–62

Priolo (Sicily), 24, f26. See also Eutyches; Sicily

prop-and-lintel roof construction: in Etruscan temples, 126–34, f127, f130, t133, f134; Greek origins, 125–26, f126, 130, f131; historic descriptions of, 137–38; prop-and-ridgepole, 93–94. See also roof construction

public buildings: ceiling treatments in, 152–53, 157–58; the civic basilica, 143–48, f146; coffered ceilings in, 161, 165–67; construction disasters of, 104, 246; doors of, 178–80, 186; foundations for, 83, 85; joists and walls of, 115–16; roof structure for, 96, 123–25, 129, f133, 133–34, 136, 140; sawn planks in, 101; temple podia, 88; temporary, 90; types of wood for, 150, 254–55; use of interior decorative orders in, 140; wooden columns in, 101–3; wooden flooring, 111–12; woodworkers for, 9. See also amphitheaters; bridges

Puglisi, Salvatore, 91–92

Pugsley, P., 232

Puteoli, Italy, 8, 178–80, f180, 187

putto. See cupids

Pyrgi (Italy), Etruscan temples, 127–34, f128–f129, f132, t133, f134, 179

pyxis, 231

quercus (oak): in barges, 192; for containers, 232; distribution of, f258; for doors, 181; for farmhouse construction, 73; for framing, 97; holm, 21, 91, 208, 235, t240, 252, f252, 264–65; for large spans, 169; for lintels, 180; in piles, 74, 78; properties of, 240–41, 257–58, 354n12.8; in retaining walls, 88; for shingles, 123; as sleeper beams, 77, f97; unsuitable for flooring, 112–13; in wall construction, 101; for water pipes, 88–89; for wet conditions, 74; in wet conditions, 86; for wheels, 205, 207–8. See also trees (woods), types of

Rabirius (architect), 150, 156–57

rainwater, 167

rafter. See cantherius (rafter)

rail. See impages (rail)

Rasch, J., 172

Ravenna, 18, f20, 73

regula (ruler), 54. See also tools

de Re Rustica (Cato), 72–73

rhykane (plane), 41–45

Richmond, I. A., 106

Richter, G., 223

Rickman, G., 77

ridgepole. See columen (ridgepole)

Rieth, Adolf, 38

Romanelli, Pietro, 91

Rome: bridge of ancient, 78–80; building of Forum of Augustus in, 65; coffered ceilings of, 12, 166; columns in buildings of, 103, f103, 109, 352n6.4 (see also Trajan’s Column); doors of ancient, 179; foundation construction in, 61, 85, f86, 88; furniture depictions from, 224; largest covered rectangular spaces in ancient, 121, 140, 145–50, t149, 255, 352n7.6; prop-and-lintel roofs of, 125, 134, f135, 136, 157; relief depicting an amphitheater, 141–43, f142, 352n8.5; relief depicting a crane, 211–12, f212; tie-beam truss roofs of, f139, 147, f148, 149–55, f154, 247; tool depictions from, 10, f14

Rondelet, J., 147

roof construction: over amphitheaters, 110, 141–43, f142, 254, 352n8.5; for atrium of domus italica, 168–72, f169–f170; bronze trusses, f142; calculating total loads, 125; centering, 172–77, f174–f175, 353n8.17; external sheathing, 123; greatest spans in, 148–50, t149, 152–53, 352n8.4, 352n8.6; Greek, 141, 144; joints used in, 68; pitched roof, 123–24; prop-and-lintel Etruscan temple, 126–34, f127, f130, t133, f134; prop-and-lintel Greek origins, 125–26, f126, 130, f131; prop-and-lintel historic descriptions of, 137–38; prop-and-ridgepole, 93–94; ridgepole size, 132–33, t133; roof supports in temples, f135; tie-beam truss for civic basilica, 143–48, f146; tie-beam truss general description, 138–40, f139–f141, 148–50; tie-beam truss in Domitian’s palace, 150–56; tie-beam truss origins, 140–43; tie-beam truss over broadest spans, 148–50; votive, 131–33, f132; water spouts on, 172; weight bearing properties, 164, f164, 169, 353n8.13. See also ceiling construction

rot: prevention of, 77, 103, 129, 183, 241, 268; woods resistant to, 149, 245–46, 253, 255–56, 261–62. See also preservation

runcina (plane), 41–45. See also tools

ruler. See regula (ruler)

Saalburg, 14. See also Germany

sacred forests, 265, 268, 353n8.12. See also trees (woods), types of sacrifice, 51

saddle (joint). See joints

S. Giorgio in Velabro (Rome), f10

St. John Hope, W., 111

St. Magnus House (U.K.), 246. See also Britain

St. Paul’s Outside the Walls (Rome), f139, 147, f148, 149

St. Peter’s (Old, Vatican), 147, 149, 158, 249 S. Omobono (Rome), 103, f103, 352n6.4

San Giuliano (Italy), f127; Tomba Cima at, 160, f161

Santa Sabina (Rome), 179

sarcophagi: bathtub-style, 217; crowning moldings of, 229; furniture depictions on, 218, f218–f220, 224, 226, 228, 233, 235; preservation of, 213; tool depictions on, 33, f36, 39, f39; use of metal pins, 59, f60; wood for, 245, 248–49, 253–54

scalprum (chisel), 26–29. See also tools

scarf (joint). See joints

saw. See serra, serrula (saw)

sawdust, 46

sawyers, 9. See also tools

scapus (stile), 190, f190, 198. See also doors

scholae. See guilds

Scotland (U.K.): axes, 24, f25; post pits, 75, t83; sleeper beams, 77, f77; wheels, 209, f209. See also Britain

Scribonius Curio, C., 109

Scriptores Historiae Augustae (Statius), 153

“Second Style” wall painting, 194

securicula (dovetail, hatchet), 24, 64. See also joints; tools

securis (axe), 22, 24, f25. See also tools

sedere (to sit), 215

senate house of Rome. See Curia Hostilia; Curia Julia

Seneca, 165, 256

serra, serrula (saw), 45, 47. See also tools

sewing (joints), 59–60

Shaker boxes, 231–32

shingles, 123, 258

shipbuilding: artifacts of, 353n9.3; joints used in, 64, 66–67; shipwrights, 18, f20, 230; tools of, f34; treatment of, 4–5; use of twine in, 59–60; wood for, 250, 252, 264, 267–68

shipwrecks, 2, 4, 53, f54, 231, 245, 262

Shirley, Elizabeth, 114

shoes: beechwood, 250; making of, 223, f224; wooden soles of, 244

shop construction, 117–22, 352n6.3; shuttered doors, 181–84, f182–f185

shuttering (foundations), 84, f85–f86

Sicily, 24, f26, 31, 45, 140–41, 179; wheels, 206, f206

Silchester (U.K.), 29–30, f30, f44, 88–89, 111, 243, 248. See also Britain

sill plate, 77

Silvanus, 9, f55

Simpelveld sarcophagus, f218, 224, 226, 228, 235. See also sarcophagi

slaves, 7, 227

sleeper beams. See foundations

social standing: coffered ceilings revealing, 165–67, 353n8.15; door treatment revealing, 178; furniture revealing, 215–17, 222–23; hierarchy of, 351n2.1; of patriarch, 218; of woodworker, 6–8, 12, 172, 351n2.1

solium (chair), 215–18, f219–f220. See also furniture

Solomon’s Temple in Jerusalem, 150, 159, 247

Sosia Juliana sarcophagus, f219 spear, 241, 251

spokes. See under wheels

spokeshave, 36. See also tools

square, carpenter’s. See norma (square)

Stamper, John, 134

Statius, P. Papinius, 152–53, 156–57

stile. See scapus (stile)

stillicidium (pitch), 124

Stoddart, Simon, 264

Stone Age, 22

Stonehenge (U.K.), 64. See also Britain

stonemason, 72

Strabo, 73, 257, 263

strap drill, 32–33. See also tools

stud (wall). See arrectarium (stud, wall)

sublica (pile), 81. See also pile

subscus (tenon), 61. See also joints

substructiones (foundations), 73. See also foundations

Suetonius Tranquillus, C., 167

sutiles naves (sewn ships), 60

Switzerland, 56, 74

Synistor, P. Fannius, 108

table. See mensa

Tamm, B., 154

tax, 12

Taylor, Rabun, 172

Teatrum Tectum (Pompeii), t149

Technologie und Terminologie (Blümner), 3

tectum (roof or ceiling), 143, 157–58, 164, 166; tectum proclinatum (pitched roof), 123–24. See also roof construction

Temple A, B (Pyrgi). See Pyrgi (Italy), Etruscan temples

Temple of Aphaia on Aegina (Greece), 130

Temple of Apollo (“in Circo,” Rome), 140, 247

Temple of Apollo (Palatine, Rome), 179

Temple of Artemis (Ephesus, Turkey), 12, 71, 150, 247; doors of, 198

Temple of Athena (Syracuse), 179

Temple of Bacchus (Baalbeck, Lebanon), 163–64, f164

Temple of Castor (Roman Forum, Rome), 12, 140, 166

Temple of Diana (Saguntum), 253

Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus (Rome), 134, f135, 157, 166

Temple of Mars Ultor (Rome), 140

Temple of Poseidon (Sounion, Greece), 130, f131

Temple of Venus and Roma (Rome), 61, 85, f86, 88, t149

tenon. See under joints

terebinthus (terebinth, turpentine-tree), 235, t240, 259. See also trees (woods), types of

terebra (auger, drill), 18, 21, 30, 351n3.1. See also tools

terebra gallica (“Celtic drill”), 32

terra-cotta: on doors, 179; plaques, 126, 128, f132, 134; relief in, f18, 222, f225; revetments, 124, 130–31, 134; tubes for centering, 173; with wooden columns, 101, 103, f103

Terremare culture, 70

testudo, 144, 145, 147, 176

Theater of Marcellus (Rome), 109

theaters. See amphitheaters

theatrum tectum (Pompeii), 143

Theodorus of Samos, 38, 56

Theophrastus: background to, 2–3; on beams, 247; on beech, 264; on construction disasters, 246, 253; on doors, 198; on properties of wood, 239–40, t240, 242–44, 252, 259; on techniques for the sawyer, 46; on tools, 21, 27; on treatment for decay, 262. See also Pliny (the Elder)

Thericles, 40

thyine wood. See citrus

Tiber River (Italy), 66, t83, f265, 266–67

Tiberius, 254–55

tie-beam truss roof: for amphitheater, f142; for civic basilica, 143–48, f146; dimensions of, 138–39, f139–f141; on Domitian’s palace, 150–56; on largest buildings, 148–50; origins of, 140–43; role in Roman building, 148–50. See also roof construction

tignum (pile, timber), 81

tiles (roofing), 123, 128, 133, 171

tilia (lime, linden), 240, t240, 259. See also trees (woods), types of

Tomba Campana (Cerveteri), 160

Tomba del Cardinale (Tarquinia), 161, f162

Tomb of Eurysaces (Rome), 224

Tomb of the Cornice (Cerveteri), 160, f160

Tomb of the Funeral Beds (Populonia), 38, f38

tools: adoption of unfamiliar, 32; adze, f16, 16–18, f17–f20, f32, f34, 41; artifacts of, 11, 13–14, f21; auger, 18–21; axe, 22–26, f23, f25, 49; bow drill, 30–32, f32, f34; calipers, f48, 52–53; categories of, 13; chisel, 26–29, f27, f32, f34, f37, 40, f55; clamps, 57–58, f58; compasses, 52, f54–f55; depicted on coins, 41, 50; depicted on glass, 32, f35, 44, 49; depicted on statue base, f55; draw-knife and spokeshave, 36; to fell trees, 49; gouge, 29–30, f30; hammer, f32, 51, 81; historical depictions of, 10, f10–f11, f14, 15, f17, f32; joiner’s dog, 57; knife, f32, 34, f34, f37; lathe, 10, f11, 15, 37–41, f39–f40; level, 53–54; literary record of, 15; literature about, 4; the making of, 21, 24, 42, 244, 256, 259; mallet, f29, f34, f55; plane, f15, f34, 41–45, f44, 256; plumb line, 53–54, f55, 72; post-Roman, 15–16; ruler, f54, 54–55; saw, 45–50, f47–f51, 72; saw (frame), f34; shops of, 36; square, f19, f55, 55–57, f56; strap drill, 32–33, f36; tongs, f32; toolbox, 18; types of, 14; value of, 13; wedge, 50–51; wood for, 250

tornator (lathe operator), 10, 40

tornus (lathe), 37–41. See also tools

Torre Annunziata (Italy). See Oplontis (Italy)

tortoise-shell, 235

towers, 75, t83, 97, 101

trabs (beam), 101, 129–30, 145, 147

Trajan, 147, 176

Trajan’s Column (Rome): amphitheater depicted on, 110, f110, 142; artillery platforms depicted on, f19, 91; bridges depicted on, 83, f84, 104–5, f105; buildings on pilings on, 73; felling of trees depicted on, f7, 49; planked walls depicted on, f74, 100–101; tools depicted on, 18, f19, 24, f25, 51, f53, 57

transportation, 1–2

transtrum (beam), 137, 145

transversarium (cross beam), 99

Trees and Timber in the Ancient Mediterranean World (Meiggs), 3–4

trees (woods), types of, f260, f267; for barges, 192; for beams, 247, 256; for bending, 232; for boxes, 231; classification of, 239–40, t240; for columns, 102; cultivated and wild, 241–42; distribution of, f249, f255, f258, 263–68, f265; for doors, 12, 178, 198, 249; in dovetail joints, 65; as durable, 249; for farmhouse construction, 73; felling of, 49; for foundations, 258; for framing, 97; for furniture, 217, 243–45, 250–51, 253, 259; for handles, 21, 24, 244, 256, 259; harvesting of, f7; historical information of, 2–4; identification of, 46; for inlay, 8; for roofs, 149–50, 169, 243, 254–55; for sarcophagi, 248; for shingles, 123; for shipbuilding, 242, 250, 252; for tables, 226–27, 248; for tools, 43, 51; tools for, 18; treatments of, 261–62; turning of, 40; for veneer, 235; for wattle, 96; in wet conditions, 60, 74, 86, 241, 244, 255; for wheels, 205, 207–8, 248, 251, 260

trenail, 66–67, f68. See also nails and pins

Trier, 44, 79, t83. See also Germany

Trojan horse, 8

trunci arborum (trunks of trees), 81

Turnu Severin (Romania), 104

turpentine, tree and wood. See terebinthus (terebinth, turpentine-tree)

Tuscan atrium, 169, f169–f170

twine (flax or hemp), 59–60

tympanum (door), 188, f190. See also doors

ulmus (elm), 73, 208, 259–60, 264. See also trees (woods), types of

Ucelli, G., 192

Vaglieri, Dante, 91

Valkenburg (U.K.), 78. See also Britain

Varro, 177, 215, 224, 230

Vatican (museum): funerary relief of a furniture maker, f20; gold-glass vessel, 32, f35, 44, 49, f49; sarcophagus, f220

veneer, 235, 248, 252, 257, 259

Venice, 73

Verucchio, 217

Verulamium (U.K.), 28, f44, f51, 97, f97. See also Britain

Vesuvius (Italy), 100, 194

Villa of the Mysteries (Pompeii), f108, t168, 190, f190–f191, 194–95, f195, f197, f200, t201. See also Pompeii

Villa Mattei, Rome, f14

villa rustica, 72

Vindolanda (U.K.): combs from, 246; doors from, 179, 184, f185; planked walls from, 101; post construction at, 75, 77; shingles from, 123; wattle and daub at, 96; wooden flooring from, 111, 244; wooden water pipes from, 88–89. See also Britain

Virgil: Aeneid, 166, 186, 217, 248, 252, 256, 259; Georgics, 40, 50, 251, 263

Vitruvius: on atrium of domus italica, 167–68, 171; background to, 2; basilica by, 3–4, 144–48, f146, 158; on ceilings, 159, 162–63, 166; on crane construction, 81; about doors, 178–79; on Etruscan temple layout, 126–27, 129–30; on floors, 113, 122; on half-timber construction, 98, 100; importance of, 2, 239; on invention of wheels, 210; on oak, 257–58; on origins of wattle and daub, 96; on properties of wood, 74, 240–41, 247, 251, 254–55; on roofs, 124, 136–38; on rough wooden buildings, 90–91; on temple doors, 198–201; on treatment for decay, 261; on wooden piles, 73; on wooden theaters, 109

walls: planked, 100–101, f102; studs, 76; as support, 153–54. See also framing; opus craticium (half-timber construction)

walnut, tree and wood. See iuglans (walnut)

water-front warehouses, 73. See also docks and quays

water pipes, 88–89, 256

waterproofing, 1. See also preservation

water spouts on roofs, 172

wattle, 81, 96, 245

wattle and daub construction, 96–97, f97

Weeks, Jane, 61

wedge (cuneus), 50–51. See also tools

wells: carpentry joints in, 61, 65, 69–70, f71; found at bottom of, 43, 250; wood for, 258

wharfs. See docks and quays

wheels: felloes of, 207; for cranes and water, 210–12, f211–f212, 230; crossbar, 206–8, f207–f208; hub (nave) of, 205, 207–8; maker of carts, 8, 24, 31; origins of, 210; planked, 202–6, f203, 204, f204, 205, f205–f206, 210; principles of construction, 107; spoked, 207–10, f209; wagon maker, f54; wood for, 248, 258, 260

Wiegand, T., 164, 180, 353n8.13

willow, tree and wood, 259. See also trees (woods), types of

window grill (wooden), 69, f69

windows and shuttered doors, 192–93, f193–f194

wood, 1–2, 72. See also trees (woods), types of

wooden artifacts: conditions for survival of, 2, 4, 73–74; destroyed, 192; of fir wood, 243. See also preservation; individual artifacts

woods, types of. See trees (woods), types of

woodworker: adapting local practices, 76; box to carry tools, 230; depictions of, 15, 48; father to son, 12–13; knowledge of woods, 239, 242, f243, 248, 256, 259, 262; life of, 8–12, 172, 351n2.1; sign of, 54; skill of, 1, 6–8, 10, 12, 34; subspecialties of, 8–9, f20, f54, 178, 202, f203, 213–14, 227; workshops of, 9–11, f11, 31, 39, f48–f49. See also tools; individual artifacts

woodworking tools. See tools

workers, organization of, 6. See also guilds

Woytowitsch, E., 202

Zürich, 21

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