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Description: From Stone to Paper: Architecture as History in the Late Mughal Empire
Index
PublisherYale University Press
https://doi.org/10.37862/aaeportal.00054.012
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Index
A
ʿAbd al-Hamid Lahori. See Lahori, ʿAbd al-Hamid
ʿAbd al-Karim Mushtaq, Mirʾat al-Gītīnumā (Mirror of the universe, 1850), 168
ʿAbd al-Khaliq Varasta, 75
ʿAbd al-Latif Shushtari, 108
ʿAbd al-Rahim Khan-i Khanan, 90
Abu al-Fazl, 134
Abu al-Mansur Safdar Jang (r. 1739–54): as nawab of Awadh and prime vizier of Mughal empire, 18, 85, 91, 176
Shiʿi identity of, 90–91, 102. See also Safdar Jang, funerary complex of, Delhi, 1753–54
Abu Talib Kalim, 166
Abu Talib Khan, 108, 188n53
ʿAdil Shahis of Bijapur (1490–1686), 91
Afghans, 11, 151
Agra: audience halls in, 165
Map of Agra, 119, 122
and textual geographies, 169, 193n53. See also specific buildings
Ahmad Shah (r. 1748–54), 63, 65, 70, 90, 102
Āʾīn-i Akbarī (Institutes of Akbar), 134
Ajmer, 61, 65, 177
Akbar (r. 1556–1605): cenotaph of, 63
internment of, 65
and monumental tomb of Humayun, 59, 67
and Nizam al-Din dargah, 59, 67, 188n39
and tomb of Selim Chishti, 61, 141
tomb at Sikandra, 24, 25, 87, 99, 119, 120, 138, 139, 139, 189n5
Akbar II (r. 1806–37): commissioning of ʿAmal-i Ṣāliḥ, 151, 154, 166
and Shah Jahan, 150, 151, 154
and son, Mirza Jahangir, 164
and Zafar Mahal, 1, 67, 177
Akbarabadi Begum, 70
Akbarabadi Mahal, 70
Akbarabadi Masjid, Delhi, 70
Akbarnāma, 152
Alam, Muzaffar, 180n15
ʿAlamgir (r. 1658–1707): Badshahi Masjid sponsored by, 36
and Bibi ka Maqbara, 39, 44, 182n17
death of, 5
and Deccani architecture, 45
Goetz on, 5
grave of, 60, 72, 161
imperial architecture of, 52–53, 55, 124
and imperial regulation, 27, 46–52, 183n31
as patron of Moti Masjid, 22–23, 52, 94
piety of, 27, 52, 55
portrait of, 53, 54
program of expansion, 182n24
and revision of recent history, 27
and War of Succession, 47, 53
Aliganj district, Delhi, 101, 102–3, 104, 110
ʿAli Mardan Khan, 70
ʿAli Riza al-ʿAbbasi, 52
ʿAmal-i Ṣāliḥ (c. 1815): and architectural representation, 150–51, 152, 154, 156, 157–58, 160, 161, 164–66, 167, 172, 174, 176, 179
audiences of, 150, 161, 164–66
Diwan-i ʿAmm, Red Fort, Delhi, 8, 154, 155
Diwan-i ʿAmm described in, 164, 165
Facing folios (Naqqar Khane and Diwan-i ʿAmm, Delhi), 161, 162, 163
The Funeral of Shah Jahan, 157–58, 159
Gateway of the Red Fort, Delhi, 154, 155
and historicism, 151, 152, 154, 156, 165, 166–67, 172, 174, 176
image and text in, 152, 154, 156–58, 160–61, 164–66, 174, 176
and imperial authority, 151
Jamiʿ Masjid, Delhi, 154, 156, 156
Naqqar Khane, Red Fort, Delhi, 154, 155
and nineteenth-century architectural history, 166–73, 174
and ornamental programs, 154, 161
on Shah Jahan, 123–24, 150, 152, 154, 157–58, 161, 166, 171
Shah Jahan Before the Red Fort, 157–58, 159
woodcuts in, 170
ʿAmal-i Ṣāliḥ (c. 1830s), 160
Amanat Khan, 51
Amin Ahmad Razi, Haft Iqlim (Seven climes), 169
Amir Khusraw, 188n39
Anquetil- Duperron, Abraham Hyacinthe, 146, 192n73
antiquarianism, 152
Aqa Abu al-Qasim Beg, 183n25
Aqqoyunlus, Tabriz, 95
Archaeological Society of Delhi, 172, 173
Archaeological Survey of India, 13, 16, 99, 151, 152, 172, 175
Archer, Edward Caulfield, 108
Archer, Mildred, 140, 144
architects: networks of, 46, 99, 108
training of, 45–46, 53
architectural history, 173–74, 175, 176
architectural plans, 114, 122–25, 127–28
architectural representation: and ʿAmal-i Ṣāliḥ, 150–51, 152, 154, 156, 157–58, 160, 161, 164–66, 172, 174, 176, 179
and Company Painting, 18, 138, 140–43, 144, 145, 146, 147, 170, 174, 191n54
and eighteenth-century Mughal architecture, 1–2, 4–8, 12
European representations of Indian architecture, 18–19, 114, 127–28, 130, 138–44
and historicization, 3–4, 12, 14, 15, 130–31, 133–37, 147, 150–51, 172, 174, 176–77
Koch on, 119, 189n6
and literary culture, 161, 164
and media, 4, 15
and Mughal painting, 119, 122, 130, 144, 150, 156, 158, 176
on paper, 2, 3, 18, 111, 147, 176
and plans, 122–23
and Rajput art, 119, 130, 138, 147
sociopolitical dimensions of, 144, 147
visual languages of, 114, 119, 122–25, 127–28, 130, 161. See also Palais Indiens
artist unknown: Darbar of Akbar (c. 1820), Delhi, 10
Detail of a Street Plan of Chandni Chowk in Delhi, 135, 136–37, 190–91n37
Diwan-i ʿAmm, Red Fort, Delhi (c. 1815), 8, 154, 155
Façade of a Delhi Palace from the Palais Indiens (c. 1774), 118, 118–19
Façade of the Palace of Dara Shikoh in Agra from the Palais Indiens (c. 1774), 128, 129
Facing folios (Naqqar Khane and Diwan-i ʿAmm, Delhi) (c. 1815), 161, 162, 163
The Funeral of Shah Jahan (c. 1815), 157–58, 159
Gateway of the Red Fort, Delhi (c. 1815), 154, 155
Gateway of the Red Fort of Delhi, from the Palais Indiens (c. 1774), 3, 7, 116, 117, 131
Gateway of the Taj Mahal (c. 1820), 142–43, 142
Jahangir Receives a Prisoner from the Jahangirnāma (c. 1618–20), 119, 120, 189n5
Jamiʿ Masjid in Delhi, from the Palais Indiens (c. 1774), 116, 116
Map of Agra, after 1722, 119, 122
Mausoleum of Safdar Jang, from the Palais Indiens (c. 1774), 116, 117
Plan of Amber Fort, 125, 125
Plan of the Funerary Complex of Itimad al-Daula (18th century), 119, 122, 123
Plan of the Jamiʿ Masjid of Delhi from the Palais Indiens (c. 1774), 118, 119
Plan of the Palace and Garden of Dara Shikoh in Agra from the Palais Indiens (c. 1774), 128, 129
Portrait of ʿAlamgir (c. 1700), 53, 54
Riverside Façade of the Red Fort of Delhi from the Palais Indiens (c. 1774), 115, 115
Shah Jahan Before the Red Fort (c. 1815), 157–58, 159
Tomb of Itimad al-Daula (c. 1820), 4, 18, 142, 143, 143
The Tomb of Selim Chishti (c. 1820), 141–42, 141
Two Draftsmen at Work from the Boileau Album (1785), 126, 127
Āsār al-Sanādīd (Vestiges of the Past, 1847, revised 1854), 16, 19, 152, 169–72, 173, 174, 184n12
Asaf al-Daula, 105, 108, 134
Asher, Catherine: on Bahadur Shah, 184n12
on funerary complex of Safdar Jang, 187n4
on Mughal architecture, 5, 182n1, 182n12, 187n12
on patronage at the dargah, 185n16
Asiatic Research Society, 152
ʿAta Allah Rashidi, 45–46, 99, 183n25
Atgah Khan, 67, 188n39
Aurangabad, India, 15, 17, 60. See also Bibi ka Maqbara, Aurangabad, 1660–61
Aurangzeb. See ʿAlamgir
Awadh: and allegiance to Mughals, 87, 89, 105
dynasty of, 85, 90, 101, 105, 110, 176
formal declaration of independence from Mughal empire, 85, 187n5
Gentil’s role in Awadhi court, 135
and military alliance with Mughals against British forces, 85
provincial governors of, 2, 9, 18, 85, 91, 102, 104, 115, 176, 187n5
and Shiʿism, 12, 85, 102, 104, 188n35
and transregional contacts, 7
Awadhi architecture: building techniques of, 108
Gentil on, 134, 135
Goetz on, 5
and imperial architectural tradition, 18, 85, 86, 87, 89, 90, 91, 104, 105, 106, 110–11, 115, 133–34, 145, 147, 176, 187n12
and Palais Indiens, 114
visual idiom of, 105, 106, 107
Aʿzam Shah, 48, 182n17
ʿAziz Koka, 188n39
B
Babar ʿAli Khan, 160
Babur (r. 1526–30), 5, 14, 59, 60, 123
Bāburnāma (c. 1580), 123
Badshahi Masjid, Lahore, 1673–74: Bibi ka Maqbara compared to, 40, 45
and experimentation, 17, 100
inscriptions of, 49, 50, 51, 52
interior, 38, 39
Jamiʿ Masjid compared to, 36, 39, 49–50, 51, 107
pīshtāq, 49, 50
view of, 36, 37
Bahadur Shah (r. 1707–12), 63, 65, 67, 68, 77–78, 135, 184n4, 184–85n12
Bahadur Shah Zafar (r. 1837–58): genealogies produced for, 160–61, 193n21
and Zafar Mahal, 1, 67, 178
Bakhtiyar Kaki dargah: and Bahadur Shah complex, 68, 77–78
burial enclosure of the nawabs of Loharu, 1802, 65, 65
gateway of Farrukh Siyar, c. 1713–19, 62, 63, 64–65, 64, 77
and grave of Bakhtiyar Kaki, 61, 65, 184n8
literary representations of, 75, 76, 77–78
and patronage, 60, 61, 65
plan of, 60, 61
renovations to, 18, 60
screen of Farrukh Siyar, c. 1713–19, 63, 63, 64, 64, 75, 77
in textual geographies, 167
and urban order, 59, 67
and Zafar Mahal, 67, 178
Benares, 125, 138
Bayly, C. A., 180n15
Bara Imambara (or Great Imambara) complex, Lucknow (1784–91): banglas of, 105, 108
funerary complex of Safdar Jang compared to, 105–6, 108
gateway, 105, 106, 108
gateway, detail, 105–6, 107
imambara 211
of, 106, 108
mosque of, 106–8
ornamental program of, 105, 108, 134
taʿziya in, 108
Beach, Milo Cleveland, 189n6
Begum Samru, 136, 191n43
Bengal, 9, 35, 85, 102, 177, 182n13
Bernard, Jean-Frédéric, 146
Bernier, François, travel narrative of, 16
Bibi ka Maqbara, Aurangabad, 1660–61: architectonic forms of, 44
and Bijapuri architecture, 44, 182n20
and experimentation, 17, 39, 40, 42, 43–44, 45, 100
façade, 40, 41, 42
gateway, 40, 40
gateway, inscription on door, 45, 45
and imperial architectural tradition, 87, 89
interior, 44, 44
Taj Mahal compared to, 39–40, 42–43, 46, 97
tomb of Safdar Jang compared to, 97, 99, 110
view of, 38
walls of exterior vault, 40, 41
Bibliothèque nationale de France (BnF), Paris, 145, 189n1
Bichitr, Shah Jahan Receiving His Three Eldest Sons from the Pādshāhnāma (c. 1656–57), 156–57, 157
Bijapuri architecture, 44, 182n20
Bishindas, Scene of a Garden Being Constructed, from a Bāburnama (c. 1590), 123, 124
Brajbhasha, 6
Britain: colonial historians of, 5
Delhi annexed by, 1, 6, 11, 151, 178
and Gentil’s negotiations for Awadhi court, 135
transition from Mughal to British rule, 1, 2, 6, 151, 178
and transregional contacts, 7
Brown, Percy, 5
Browne, John, after William Hodges, View of the Gateway of the Tomb of Akbar at Sikandra, 139, 139
Burhan al-Mulk Saʿadat Khan, 9, 12, 85, 102, 188n35
C
Calcutta, 127
Cavenagh, Orfeur, 108
chahār bāgh (four-fold) type: in Bishindas, Scene of a Garden Being Constructed, 123, 124
and funerary complex of Safdar Jang, Delhi, 1753–54, 85, 86, 110
and garden plan, 23, 70
and tomb of Akbar, 138
and tomb of Iʿtimad al-Daula, 90
Chakrabarty, Dipesh, 14
Chandarbhan, 166
Chandni Chowk. See Delhi
Chatterjee, Kumkum, 14
Chatterjee, Partha, 14
Chausath Kambah, 188n39
chihil sutūn, 165
Chihil Sutun, Isfahan, 165, 165
Chiragh Delhi, dargah of, 75, 76
Chishti Sufi order: and Mughal empire, 11, 65, 102
sanctity of, 102
shrines of Sufi saints in extramural spaces of Delhi, 18, 58, 59–61, 63–65, 67–69, 70, 80
Chishti, Noor Ahmad, Tahqiqaat Chishti: Tarikh-e-Lahor ka Encyclopedia (Chishti’s inquiries: An encyclopedia of Lahore’s history, 1867), 169, 172–73
Chowk Saʿadullah Khan. See Delhi
circulation: transregional circulation of images, 15
circulation of images between India and Europe, 18–19
and transregional contacts, 7
Colbert, Jean-Baptiste, 11
Coldstream, William, 169
Cole, Juan, 188n35
Compagnie des Indes Orientales (cdio). See French East India Company
Company Painting: and artistic agency, 144
as a category, 140–41
representations of Mughal architecture, 18, 138, 140–43, 144, 145, 146, 147, 170, 174, 191n54
Cunningham, Alexander, 13, 16, 151
D
Daniell, Thomas: and aquatint of Qudsiyya Bagh, 70
commissions of, 191n50
and Picturesque style, 138, 139, 145, 146, 147
The Taje Mahale, at Agra, 140, 140
Daniell, William: and aquatint of Qudsiyya Bagh, 70
and Picturesque style, 138, 139, 145, 146, 147
and Ram Raz, 173
The Taje Mahale, at Agra, 140, 140
Dara Shikoh, Mughal prince, 46, 47, 115, 128, 136, 158, 160
Dargah Quli Khan, Muraqqaʿ-yi Dihlī, 7, 18, 59, 73, 74–80, 81
Daulatabad, fortress of, 119, 121
de Boigne papers, 147
Deccan: architecture of, 44–45, 52, 182n24
autonomy of, 85
and Iran, 11, 12
and Mughal visual idiom, 7
and Shiʿism, 11, 91
Delhi, India: Aliganj district, 101, 102–3, 104, 110
British annexation of, 1, 6, 11, 151, 178
British Residents of, 167
Chandni Chowk, 58, 70, 71, 72, 76, 77, 100, 135, 136–37, 154, 190n36, 190–91n37
Chowk Saʿadullah Khan, 76, 77
expansion of imperial presence in, 60
Faiz Bazaar, 58, 70, 72, 135, 136, 190n36
gardens of, 70, 76
histories of, 75, 167–74, 176
in literary texts, 3, 59, 73–80
maps of, 59, 60, 101
monuments of, 19
Mughal architecture of, 15, 17, 19, 23, 70, 73, 74–75, 77, 84, 91, 137, 151, 175, 176
as Mughal capital, 3, 4, 7, 11
Nadir Shah’s invasion of, 58, 79, 184n5
public spaces of, 59, 73, 76, 77, 80
and religious architecture, 70–72, 75, 77, 100, 101
Shah Jahan as founder of, 154, 166
Shiʿi shrines in, 18, 85, 101–4, 110
spatial organization of, 18, 58, 71, 72, 77, 78, 80, 85, 101
urban building projects, 69–73, 78, 80, 175
urban history of, 6, 7, 15, 17, 67, 86
urban image of, 18–19, 73–80
and urban subjectivity, 59, 80. See also specific buildings
Dhanraj, Genealogical Chart of Jahangir, 1610–23, 152, 153
Diwan-i ʿAmm. See Red Fort
Diwan-i Khass. See Red Fort
Diwān-i Muhandis, 46 212
Dumont, Plan and Elevation of the Governor’s Palace in Pondicherry (1755), 128, 128
E
East India Company College, 173
Eaton, Natasha, 6
eighteenth century: characteristics of, 9, 11–12
long eighteenth century, 4, 12, 15, 175, 177, 178
and mobility, 7, 181n21
recasting of, 4–8
transitional nature of, 15
Elevation of the Thousand Pillared Hall, Madura (c. 1750), 192n77
Elliot, Henry M., 173
English East India Company, 7, 9, 11, 138, 140, 143, 147, 173
F
Faiz Bazaar. See Delhi
Faizabad, 6–7, 85
Fakhr al-Din Qadi Khan, 183n39
Fakhr al-Masajid, Pride of the Mosques, Delhi, 1728–29, 17–18, 17, 71–72, 71, 107
Fakhr al-Nisa, 71
Farrukh Siyar (r. 1713–19): gateway of, dargah of Bakhtiyar Kaki, Delhi, 62, 63, 64–65, 64, 77
and inscription, 64–65, 77
and instability, 184n4
screen of, dargah of Bakhtiyar Kaki, Delhi, 63, 63, 64, 64, 75, 77
Fatāwā al-ʿĀlamgīriyya (Fatwas of ʿAlamgir), and Mughal architecture, 16, 27, 48–49, 55, 183n39
Fatāwā al-Hindiyya (Fatwas of India), 27
Fatehpur Sikri, 61, 95
Fatehpuri Masjid, Delhi, 70
Fayz ʿAli Khan, 169, 170
Fergusson, James, 5, 13, 16, 151, 175
Fidai Khan Koka, 49
Fort William, Calcutta, 126, 127
France, 7, 15, 18, 145–47
French East India Company (Compagnie des Indes Orientales, or cdio), 7, 9, 11, 114, 127, 146
French Orientalism, 16, 145, 146
G
Gadebusch, Raffael, 145
Ganesh Pol, 125
Gentil, Jean-Baptiste: architectural studies commissioned by, 18, 114, 115–16, 125, 127, 130, 134, 147, 176
collection of, 134, 135, 145, 146
memoirs of, 134, 192n72
on Mughal architecture, 16, 137, 145
and Mughal history, 134–35, 145
and Polier, 142–43
Gentil Album, 134, 135
geographies: and illustrated geographies, 3
textual geographies, 15, 16, 19, 167, 169–73, 174, 176, 193n53, 194n65, 194n68
George IV (king of England), 177
Ghazi al-Din Khan: and madrasa of, 72
Ghulam ʿAli Khan, 6, 144, 160, 170
Ghulam Qadir, 11
Glover, William J., 172, 194n68
Godehu, Charles Robert, 192n77
Goetz, Hermann, 5, 180n6
Gole, Susan, 190n21, 190–91n37
Govardhan II, 130
Governor’s Palace, Pondicherry, 128, 128
Guha, Sumit, 14
Gur-i Amir (c. 1400–1404), 23, 39, 152
H
Hada Mahal, Fatehpur Sikri (1571–85), 95
Hadith, 52
Hakim Ahsan Ullah Khan, 160
Hamadeh, Shirine, 8, 185n23
Hanafi school of law, 48
Hardinge, Charles, 168
Hasan, Zafar, 84, 100, 184n12, 185n22, 187n1
Hasan Karahisari, 52
Haspat Rai, 183n25
Hastings, Warren, 138
Heber, Reginald, 84
historical subjectivity, and Mughal architecture, 12, 59, 65, 175, 177
historicization, of Mughal architecture, 1, 2–4, 5, 12–19, 29, 55, 65, 72, 73, 85, 101, 110, 111, 114, 130–31, 133–37, 144–45, 147, 150–51, 154, 174, 175, 179
history writing, 12–14, 169, 172, 175
Hodges, William: and Picturesque style, 138–39, 140, 144–45, 146, 147
View of the Gateway of the Tomb of Akbar at Sikandra, 139
Humayun (r. 1530–40, 1555–56): Fergusson on, 5
plan of tomb, 94, 95
tomb of, 18, 24, 59, 67, 87, 90, 91, 101, 102, 104, 109–10, 160, 167
tomb of Safdar Jang compared to, 97, 101, 104, 109–10
Hurel, Roselyne, 189n1
I
Iltutmish (r. 1201–36), 184n8
Imam al-Din Riyazi, 46
Imambara, 105–108, 134
ʿInayat Khan, 166
Indian architecture: and Company Painting, 138
European representations of, 18, 114, 116, 138–40, 144–45, 147
and landscape architecture, 39
and Picturesque style, 18, 114, 116, 138–40, 144–45, 147. See also Mughal architecture
India’s Fabled City: The Art of Courtly Lucknow (Los Angeles County Museum of Art and Musée Guimet, 2010–11), 7
Indo-Persian manuscript culture, 16
Indo-Saracenic style, 177
innovation: and architectural practice, 23, 29, 36, 46, 99, 101, 110
inscriptions, 49–52
Iran, 11, 12, 23, 102, 165
Islamic art history, 8
istiqbāl, and Mughal architecture, 23, 27, 29, 32, 35–36, 39–40, 42–45, 46, 47, 100–101, 182n7
Iʿtimad al-Daula, tomb of, 4, 18, 90, 119, 122, 123, 142, 143, 143
J
Jaffar Khan, 70
Jahan Ara, Mughal princess, 51, 68, 70, 102–3, 136, 188n39, 188n43, 191n43
Jahandar Shah (r. 1712–13), 184n4
Jahangir (r. 1605–27): Fergusson on, 5
and Iʿtimad al-Daula, 90, 142
in Mughal pictorial genealogies, 152, 153
tomb of, Lahore, 1637, 87, 103
Jai Singh II, 69–70
Jaigarh Fort, 125, 190n22
Jaipur, 8, 69, 70
Jaipur City Palace Museum, 119
Jamiʿ Masjid (1648), Agra, 50, 51
Jamiʿ Masjid (1653), Delhi: in architectural studies, 72, 115, 143, 145
Badshahi Masjid compared to, 36, 39, 49–50, 51, 107
eastern gateway of, 76
Fakhr al-Masajid compared to, 17–18, 72
historicization of, 154
inscriptions of, 49–50, 51
Jamiʿ Masjid, Delhi (c. 1815), 154, 156, 156
Jamiʿ Masjid in Delhi, from the Palais Indiens (c. 1774), 116, 116
Plan of the Jamiʿ Masjid of Delhi from the Palais Indiens (c. 1774), 118, 119
Shah Jahan’s sponsorship of, 70
and shift in urban order, 73
in textual geographies, 167
and urban building projects, 175
and Ustad Ahmad Lahori, 46
view of, 36, 37, 72
Jantar Mantar, Delhi, c. 1725, 69–70
Jats, 9
Jesuit missions, 127–28, 170
Joly, Adrien-Jacques, 192n72
Joly, Hugues-Adrien, 192n72
K
Kaʿba, Mecca, 51
Kalimāt-i Tāiyabāt, 124
Kanbo, Muhammad Salih, 150, 164
Kavuri-Bauer, Santhi, 5–6, 144, 145, 193n53, 194n68
Keshani, Hussein, 185n18, 187n28
Khalil Sultan, 152
Khayr Allah, 46
Khera, Dipti, 8, 181n24
Khulasaʿ-i Rāz, 46
Khuldabad, 60, 161
Kifayat Allah, 188n51
Koch, Ebba: on architectural representation, 119, 189n6
on funerary complex of Safdar Jang, 187n4
on Mughal architecture, 5, 23, 182n1
on multi-pillared hall typology, 165
L
Lafitte de Brassier, Louis François Grégoire, Plan of Fort William, Calcutta (c. 1779), 126, 127
Lafont, Jean-Marie, 147, 192n70
Lahore: audience halls in, 165
and textual geographies, 169, 172–73. See also Badshahi Masjid, Lahore, 1673–74
Lahori, ʿAbd al-Hamid Lahori, 166, 185n14, 193n33
Lalah Sil Chand, Tafrih al-ʿImārāt (Account of the buildings, 1824), 169, 193n53
Langlès, Louis-Mathieu, 146
Latif, Syad Muhammad, 173
Lelyveld, David, 194n68
Lippit, Yukio, 14
literary culture: and Delhi, 3, 59, 73–80, 186n71
imagery of, 161, 164
and lexicography, 6
and poetry, 3, 5, 15, 27, 53, 161, 164
Lodi dynasty, 184n8
Losensky, Paul, 27
Losty, J. P., 6, 144, 154, 189n5, 192n1
Louis XVI (king of France), 114, 125, 146
Lucknow, India, 6–7, 15, 85, 91. See also Bara Imambara (or Great Imambara) complex, Lucknow (1784–91)
Lushington, John Steven, 169
Lutf Allah Muhandis, 46
M
Maʾāsir-i ʿĀlamgīrī, 45, 47–48
McLeod, Duncan, 177
Makramat Khan, 46
Malet, Charles Ware, 191n50
mandalas, 95
Man Mandir, Benares, 125
Marathas, 9, 11, 151
Masjid-i Shah (1611–38), 51–52
Masjid-i Shaykh Lutfullah (1603–19), 51–52
Mayo, Richard Bourke, Lord, 178
Mayo College, Ajmer, 1870s, 177–78, 178
Mazhar ʿAli Khan: Folio from the Metcalfe Album (Reminiscences of Imperial Delhie), 1844, 167, 168
Reminiscences of Imperial Dehlie, 167
as topographical painter, 6, 144
Metcalfe, Charles, 167
Metcalfe, Thomas, 167
Mihr Chand, 6, 130
Minor, Heather Hyde, 14
Mirak Mirza Ghiyas, tomb of Humayun, Delhi, 1562–71, 24, 67, 95
Mir Musharraf, 78
Mirza Jahangir (son of Akbar II), 164, 185n22
Mirza Muhammad-Amin Qazwini, 166
Mirza Shah Rukh Beg: Akbarabadi Mosque, from Āsār al-Sanādīd (c. 1847), 170–71, 170
as artist of renderings for Āsār al-Sanādīd, 169–70
and topographical painting, 144
mobility: and Mughal architectural culture, 8, 108
and global circulation of Mughal architecture, 18–19
and transregional contacts, 7, 181n21
and travel narratives, 74
Mohan Singh, 130
Mohsan Khan, 70
Motigny papers, 147
Moti Masjid, Mehrauli, Delhi, 1709: and Bahadur Shah, 62, 63, 67, 68, 184–85n12
location of, 183n49
Moti Masjid, Red Fort of Agra, 1653, 51, 183n49
Moti Masjid (“Pearl Mosque”), Delhi, 1658–63: ʿAlamgir as patron of, 22–23, 52, 94
arches of, 35
architectonic forms of, 35, 36
Badshahi Masjid compared to, 39
bangla pavilion, 35
bangla vault, 32, 33
Bibi ka Maqbara compared to, 40, 45
capital, 29, 31
cornice, detail, 36, 36
courtyard wall, 35, 35
dome, 32, 33, 35
and experimentation, 17, 29, 32, 35, 36, 100
inscriptions of, 51
interior wall, detail, 30
location of, 183n49
mihrab, 32, 34, 35
minbar, 32, 34, 35
Nagina Masjid compared to, 29, 35
plan of, 28, 29
sculptural effects of, 94
vaulting and supports, 32, 32
view of, 22
visual qualities of, 22, 23
Mughal architecture: abstraction of, 19, 111, 146, 147, 175, 177
architectonic forms, 35, 36, 44, 55, 116, 147
and architectural plans, 123–24
and artistic merit, 17
and authority of Mughal empire, 9, 12
and Awadhi architecture, 18, 85, 86, 87, 89, 90, 91, 104, 105, 106, 110–11, 115, 133–34, 145, 147, 176, 187n12
and concept of the monumental, 2, 3, 5–6, 7, 23, 151, 161, 164–65, 175
and epigraphy, 51–52, 183n39
and essentialist interpretation, 5
and experimentation, 17, 23, 45–46, 55
and funerary complexes, 39, 51, 58, 59–60, 67
global consumption of, 18–19, 145–47
and historical subjectivity, 12, 59, 65, 175, 177
historicization of, 1, 2–4, 5, 12–19, 29, 55, 65, 72, 73, 85, 101, 110, 111, 114, 130–31, 133–37, 144–45, 147, 150–51, 154, 174, 175, 179
and imperial histories, 16, 19
and Islamicization, 5
and istiqbāl concept, 23, 27, 29, 32, 35–36, 39–40, 42–45, 46, 47, 100–101, 182n7
and landscape architecture, 39
in north India, 85, 86, 105–8
ornamental elements of, 116, 147, 161
and Palais Indiens, 114, 123
recasting eighteenth century, 4–8
reflexive style of, 13, 17, 18, 23, 29, 59, 72, 81, 152, 154, 175, 177
and regulation, 17, 23, 27, 46–52, 55
and self-referentiality, 2, 3, 12
standardization of style, 17, 18, 23, 47, 53
Timurid roots of, 5, 12, 23, 39, 95
circulation of images in Europe, 15, 18–19
and urbanism, 1, 4, 6, 7, 15, 17, 19, 23, 70, 73
visual language of, 23, 27, 39, 53, 58, 73, 81, 84–85, 86, 91–92, 99, 110, 111, 175–76, 177. See also architectural representation
Mughal empire (1526–1858): architectural language of, 1, 7, 8, 15, 16–17, 18, 19, 23, 29, 46–47, 55, 73
authority of, 1, 9, 11, 12, 39, 58, 65, 87, 89, 90, 110, 144, 147, 151
autonomy of, 23
characteristics of eighteenth century, 9, 11–12
and decline narrative, 6, 84
emblematic architectural forms of, 1
European officers and visitors seeking audience with emperor, 9
genres of history writing of, 13–14
identity of, 1, 23, 39, 85, 86, 91, 105, 135, 137, 145, 150, 175
imperial histories, 15, 16
instability in, 58, 181n36, 184n4
legacy of, 2, 65, 73
pictorial genealogies of, 152, 154
and provinces, 9
rebellions against, 9, 85, 181n27
and Sunni-centered socioreligious order, 11–12, 18, 85–86, 102, 104, 188n35
transition from Mughal to British rule, 1, 2, 6, 151, 178
Mughal painting: and architectural representation, 119, 122, 130, 144, 150, 156, 158, 176
and European representational techniques, 127–28
genres of, 150, 156
and historicism, 3, 150
and portraiture, 53, 55, 119, 152, 160
Muhammad-Amin Qazwini, 166
Muhammad Fakhr al-Din Husain, 160
Muhammad Jan Qudsi Mashhadi, 166
Muhammad Salih Kanbo. See Kanbo, Muhammad Salih
Muhammad Shah (r. 1719–48): accession of, 58, 181n36
burial enclosure, dargah of Nizam al-Din, Delhi, 1748, 66, 67–69, 161, 188n39
court of, 78, 79, 130
marriage to Qudsiyya Begum, 70, 102, 180n6
Sawai Jai Singh’s astronomical text dedicated to, 69
Muhammad Waris. See Waris, Muhammad
Muharram, 79, 105
muhtasib, 77–78
Muʿin al-Din Chishti, 60, 61, 65
Mumtaz Mahal, 39, 60
Mundy, Godfrey, 108–9
Murad Bakhsh, 47
Muraqqaʿ-yi Dihlī: and Dargah Quli Khan, 7, 18, 59, 73, 74–80, 81
on music, 73, 74, 76, 77, 78–79, 186n55
on people of city, 76–77, 80
on poets, 73, 74, 75
on sacred spaces, 77, 80
on shrines of Delhi, 74, 75, 77, 78, 79, 80
and social hierarchy, 78–79
on urban culture, 16, 18, 73, 74–80
and urbanistic view of Delhi, 73–74
Murar, The Siege of Daulatabad from the Pādshāhnāma (c. 1635), 119, 121
Murshidabad, Bengal, 102
and palace, 177
music: ʿAlamgir’s regulation of, 48, 183n31
Muraqqaʿ-yi Dihlī on, 73, 74, 76, 77, 78–79, 186n55
N
Nadir Shah (r. 1736–47), 11, 58, 79, 184n5
Nagina Masjid, Agra, c. 1630, 28, 29, 35
Naim, C. M., 194n65, 194n68
Najaf Khan, tomb of, 103, 104
Naqqar Khana. See Red Fort, Delhi
Nash, John, 177
Nath, R., 184n12
nawabs of Loharu, burial enclosure, dargah of Bakhtiyar Kaki, Delhi, 1802, 65, 65
Necipoğlu, Gülru, 189n10, 192n7
Neoclassical style, 139, 177
Nevasi Lal, 130
Nizam al-Din Auliya (d. 1325), 67, 102
Nizam al-Din dargah: and Akbar, 59, 67, 188n39
burial enclosure of Muhammad Shah, 66, 67–69, 161, 188n39
grave of Nizam al-Din Auliya, 67, 68, 102, 185n18
literary representations of, 75, 76, 186n71
and patronage, 59–60, 78
plan of, 68, 68
in textual geographies, 167
and tomb of Humayun, 101, 102, 104
view of, 68, 69
Nizam al-Mulk Asaf Jah I, 9, 72, 73, 80
Nizam Shahis of Ahmadnagar (1496–1636), 91
Nur Allah, 46
Nur Jahan, 90, 102, 136, 142, 191n43
O
observatories, 58, 69, 70
Ottoman Baroque, 8
Ottoman empire (1299–1922): and architectural ornament, 91
and architectural plans, 122–23
and imperial portraiture, 152, 154
and inscriptional programs 51–52
and literary culture, 164
P
Pādshāhnāma: Bichitr, Shah Jahan Receiving His Three Eldest Sons (c. 1656–57), 156–57, 157, 158
Murar, The Siege of Daulatabad (c. 1635), 119, 121, 189n6
on Shah Jahan, 123–24, 156–59, 166
Palace of Dara Shikoh, 135, 136–37
Palace pavilions, Red Fort, Agra, c. 1630, 26
Palais Indiens (c. 1774): audience of, 145–47
and codification of Mughal architectural past, 114–15, 116, 147
commemorative function of, 125, 127
and depiction of ornament, 130–31, 133, 134
Façade of a Delhi Palace, 118, 118–19
Façade of the Palace of Dara Shikoh in Agra, 128, 129
format of paintings, 115–16, 118–19, 127, 128, 154
Gateway of the Red Fort of Delhi, 3, 7, 116, 117, 131
Gentil’s commissioned architectural studies, 18, 114, 115–16, 125, 127, 130, 134, 147, 176
and gridded plans, 122, 125
and historical narrative, 130–31, 133–37, 144–45, 147, 176
idealization in, 143
inscriptions of, 116, 130, 190n31
Jamiʿ Masjid in Delhi, 116, 116
Mausoleum of Safdar Jang, 116, 117
pictorial conventions of, 145
Plan of the Jamiʿ Masjid of Delhi, 118, 119
Plan of the Palace and Garden of Dara Shikoh in Agra, 128, 129
Riverside Façade of the Red Fort of Delhi, 115, 115
subjective portrayals of, 131, 133
and textual glosses, 130
visual language of, 114, 116, 130, 176, 179
parchīn kārī, 52, 55
Parodi, Laura, 44, 182n20
patronage: in Awadhi provincial capitals, 85, 89
and bridging of past and present, 1
and cultural exchange, 6
and dargahs, 59–60, 61, 65, 67, 69, 78, 185n16
and Delhi building projects, 69, 70–73, 80, 169
and French and English East India Companies, 7
and imperial religiosity, 52–53, 55
and inscriptions, 49, 51
motivations of patrons, 15
and ornamental programs, 161
patterns of, 185n12
politics of, 5
and social hierarchy, 78, 80
and textual geographies, 169
Persian art, 14, 27
Persian language: and Britons living in India, 164
and shahrāshūb genre, 6
textual geographies in, 15, 16, 19, 167, 176
Persian poetry, 27
Picart, Bernard, 146
Picturesque style: and European representations of Indian architecture, 18, 114, 116, 138–40, 144–45, 146, 147
and tomb of Safdar Jang, 108, 109, 110
pietra dura, 23, 42, 43, 52, 91, 105, 116, 131, 183n59
poetry, 3, 5, 15, 27, 53, 161, 164
Polier, Antoine, 143–44, 145
Pollock, Sheldon, 14
positivism, 151, 173, 176
Princes and Painters in Mughal Delhi: 1707–1857 (Asia Society, 2012), 7
Prophet Muhammad, 64, 79, 105
Purana Qila (Old Fort), 75
Q
Qadamgah of ʿAli (shrine of the footprint of ʿAli), 76, 102, 186n71
Qadam Sharif shrine, Delhi, 75, 79
Qademi, Sharif Husain, 193n36
Qudsiyya Bagh, Delhi, c.1748, 5, 70, 180n6
Qudsiyya Begum, 70, 71, 102–3, 180n6
Qutb Sahib Bakhtiyar Kaki (d. 1235), 59–60. See also Bakhtiyar Kaki dargah
Qutb Minar complex, 109, 167, 168, 184n8
Qutb Shahis of Golconda and Hyderabad (1496–1687), 91
R
Rabiʿa Daurani, 39, 44, 87
Rajasthan, 85
Rajput architecture, 5, 125, 139
Rajput art, 8, 27, 119, 130, 138, 147
Rajputs, 9, 164
Ram Raz, Essay on the Architecture of the Hindus, 173–74
Raushan al-Daula, 71, 100
Rawdon-Hastings, Francis, 110
Razia (r. 1236–40), 136, 191n43
Red Fort, Agra, c. 1630, 23, 26, 165, 165
Red Fort, Delhi (1639–48): in architectural studies, 115, 138, 143, 145
axes emanating from main entrances of, 58
base of jharoka throne, 29, 30
capital, palace pavilion, 29, 31
Delhi Gate of, 76
Detail of a Street Plan of Chandni Chowk in Delhi, 135, 136–37, 190–91n37
Diwan-i ʿAmm, 154, 164–65, 167
Diwan-i ʿAmm, Red Fort, Delhi (c. 1815), 8, 154, 155
Diwan-i Khass, 165
gateway of, 131, 131, 138, 154, 167
Gateway of the Red Fort, Delhi (c. 1815), 154, 155
Gateway of the Red Fort of Delhi, from the Palais Indiens (c. 1774), 3, 7, 116, 117, 131
historicization of, 154
and imperial architectural tradition, 91
Lahore Gate of, 76
limited access represented by, 58
and Muraqqaʿ-yi Dihlī, 75, 76, 80
Naqqar Khane, 154
Naqqar Khane, Red Fort, Delhi (c. 1815), 154, 155
palace pavilions, 52, 99, 183–84n59
plan of, 138
and refinement of architectural forms, 46
Riverside Façade of the Red Fort of Delhi from the Palais Indiens (c. 1774), 115, 115
Shah Jahan Before the Red Fort (c. 1815), 157–58, 159
Shah Jahan’s commissioning of, 29, 53, 58
and shift in urban order, 17, 58, 73, 75, 80
and shift toward ornamental style, 36, 43
in textual geographies, 167, 169
and travel narratives, 59, 75
Reinhardt, Walter, 191n43
Reminiscences of Imperial Dehlie, 167
Repton, Humphry, 177
Rice, Yael, 170, 194n63
Richard, Francis, 189n1
Roberdean, J. T., 150, 158, 166
Roberts, A. A., 172
Roberts, Emma, 109
Rococo, 5
Rousselet, Louis, 109
Roxburgh, David, 14, 182n7
Roy, Malini, 6, 8
Royal Asiatic Society, 173
Royal Pavilion, Brighton, 1803–32, 177, 177
Russell, William Howard, 109
Rüstem, Ünver, 8
S
Sadiq Khan, 166
Safavid empire (1501–1722): and architectural ornament, 91
and artistic genealogies, 14
dissolution of, 12
and imitative practice, 27
and inscriptional programs, 51–52
and literary culture, 164
palace architecture of, 95
and Shiʿism, 11
Safdar Jang, funerary complex of, Delhi, 1753–54: architectonic forms, 89, 99
architectural studies of, 115
and bangla jharokas, 89, 95, 110
British travelers on, 108–10
cenotaph, 93, 94, 106
and chahār bāgh, 86
corner tower, 86, 89, 131, 133
dome, 95, 96, 99
exterior vault, 92
façades of, 89
garden pavilion, 86, 88
gateway, 99
gateway, detail, 86, 86
and hasht bihisht plan, 95, 110
and imperial architectural tradition, 18, 84, 85, 86–87, 89–92, 94–95, 97, 99–101, 104, 105, 106, 108, 110, 115, 133, 175–76, 179, 187n4
inscription of, 89–90, 90, 187n15
interior chamber, upper zone, 95, 96
interior vaults, 92, 93, 97, 99
Mausoleum of Safdar Jang, from the Palais Indiens (c. 1774), 116, 117
mosque, 86, 88, 99–100, 100
ornamental program of, 86, 89, 91–92, 99, 108, 110
paintings of, 109–10
and Picturesque style, 108, 109, 110
plan of, 86, 87, 87, 94, 95, 99
sculptural relief on interior vault, 97, 97
and Shiʿi shrines in Delhi, 18, 85, 101–4
side towers of, 131
tomb of Humayun compared to, 97, 101, 104, 109–10
and urban recoding, 101–2, 103, 104, 110
vaulting technology of, 94–95, 97, 106, 108, 110, 187n28
views of, 2, 7, 84, 132
Sangin Beg, 167
Sanskrit, 164
Saqi Mustaʿidd Khan, 48
Sayr al-Manāzil (A Tour of the Sites, 1836), on urban history, 16, 19, 152, 167–68, 169
Sayyid Ahmad Khan, 169, 172, 173
Selim Chishti, tomb of, 61, 141–42, 141
Seven Years’ War, 11
Sèvres porcelain, 146
Shah ʿAlam II (r. 1759–1806), 11, 63, 65, 103, 144
Shahi Mardan dargah, Delhi, 71, 102, 103, 110
Shah Jahan (r. 1628–58): and Akbar II, 150, 151, 154
ʿAlamgir’s deposing of, 27, 47, 53, 55, 166
ʿAmal-i Ṣāliḥ on, 123–24, 150, 152, 154, 157–58, 161, 166, 171
cenotaphs of Shah Jahan and Mumtaz Mahal, 60, 93
cenotaph surrounded by marble lattice screen, 60, 158, 161
and conceptions of space in Delhi, 58
court of, 164
and dargah of Muʿin al-Din Chishti at Ajmer, 65
Fergusson on, 5
as founder of Delhi, 154, 166
Goetz on, 5
imperial architecture of, 12, 13, 27, 29, 42, 49, 51, 53, 55, 107, 123–24, 154
imperial thrones of, 161
Jamiʿ Masjid as imperial congregational mosque of, 17–18, 36, 49
and Mughal history writing, 14
Pādshāhnāma on, 123–24, 156–59, 166
portraiture of, 53
urban order established by, 67
Shahjahanabad, Delhi: building projects of, 80
city plans of, 134
completion of, 59
founding of, 16
gardens of, 70
madrasa of, 72
mosques of, 100, 107
as Mughal capital, 6, 58, 67, 144
palace-fortress of, 29
public spaces of, 76
Safdar Jang and descendants owning property in, 99
Shāhjahānnāma (History of Shah Jahan), 166
shahrāshūb genre: and literary culture, 6
and Muraqqaʿ-yi Dihlī, 74
and nostalgia, 145
and textual geographies, 16, 169, 171
Shah Shujaʿ, 47
Shalimar Bagh, Lahore (1637–41), 99
Sharaf al-Din ʿAli Yazdi, 152
Sharma, Yuthika, 6, 8, 140–41, 144, 145, 193n21
Shiʿism: and Delhi shrine district, 18, 85, 101–4, 110
identity of, 85
and Mughal empire, 11–12, 85, 188n35
and Qudsiyya Begum, 102, 103
shrine of ʿAli, Najaf, 91
shrine of Husayn, Karbala, 91
shrine of Imam Riza, Mashhad, 91
Shujaʿ al-Daula (r. 1753–75), 105, 115, 135
Shujaʿat Khan, 71
Sikandra, 99, 119
Sikhs, 9, 181n27
Sinan, 14, 51
Sita Ram: as Picturesque artist, 6
Tomb of Safdar Jang, 109, 110
Skinner, James, 170
Soane, John, 173
South Asian art history, 8
souvenir paintings, 3, 18, 114, 143, 174
Sprenger, Aloys, 173
Subrahmanyam, Sanjay, 14
Sultanate period (1211–1526), 60, 67, 184n8
Sunahri Masjid (Golden Mosque, 1721–22), 71, 100
Sunni Islam: in Mughal empire, 11–12, 18, 85–86, 102, 104, 188n35
schools of legal thought, 48
T
Taj Mahal (Mausoleum of Mumtaz Mahal), Agra, 1632–48: Bibi ka Maqbara compared to, 39–40, 42–43, 46, 97
Daniells’ The Taje Mahale, at Agra, 140, 140
and epigraphy, 51
exterior dado, detail, 40, 42
exterior spandrels, detail, 40, 43
gateway of, 131, 132
Gateway of the Taj Mahal, 142–43, 142
historicization of, 154
and imperial architectural tradition, 87, 89, 175
and marble lattice screen, 60
and Mughal architecture, 12
and Mughal visual idiom, 7, 23
pietra dura, detail, 27, 40
plan of, 94, 95, 99
Shah Jahan as patron of, 49, 51, 53, 161
tomb of Iʿtimad al-Daula compared to, 90
tomb of Safdar Jang compared to, 97
and vase motif, 32, 182n11
views of, 13, 26, 99
visual language of, 23
Talkatora Karbala, Lucknow (1798), 91
taqlīd, 27 Taqrir al-Tahrir, 46
Tavernier, Jean-Baptiste, 16, 59, 80
taʿziya, 105, 108
tazkiras (biographical dictionaries): and literary culture, 6
as multidimensional texts, 74
and textual geographies, 16, 169, 170, 171, 194n65, 194n68
textual geographies, 15, 16, 19, 167, 169–73, 174, 176, 193n53, 194n65, 194n68
Tillotson, Giles, 8
Timur (r. 1370–1405), 152, 160
Timurid dynasty (1370–1507): and artistic genealogies, 14, 152, 154, 160
and Mughal architecture, 5, 12, 23, 39, 95
Tipu Sultan, 146
Todar Mal Baradari, 95
topographical painting, 6, 119, 144
transregional contacts, 7, 15, 18–19
travel narratives, 3, 15, 16, 74
Travers, Robert, 180n16
Treaty of Paris of 1763, 11
Tripolia Gate, 115
Troll, Christian W., 194n68
Twelver Shiʿism, 11, 104, 105
U
Udaipur, 8
Ulugh Beg, 152
Ulūs-i arbaʿa-yi Chingīzī (The four Chingizid nations), 152
urbanism: and building projects in Delhi, 69–73, 78, 80, 175
and historical subjectivity, 59, 65
and Mughal architecture, 1, 4, 6, 7, 15, 17, 19, 23, 70, 73
Muraqqaʿ-yi Dihlī on urban culture, 16, 18, 73, 74–80
and Red Fort, Delhi, 17, 58, 73, 75, 80
Sangin Beg on urban history, 16, 19, 152, 167–68, 169
and tomb of Safdar Jang, 101–2, 103, 104, 110
and urban spatial organization, 15, 17, 18, 64–65, 67
Urdu: and Britons living in India, 164
and shahrāshūb genre, 6
textual geographies in, 15, 16, 19, 167, 169, 176
ʿUrfi Shirazi, 171–72
Ustad Ahmad Lahori: as architect of Shah Jahan, 45–46, 99
Mausoleum of Mumtaz Mahal (Taj Mahal), Agra, 1632–48, 13, 26, 99
Ustad Hamid, 46
Uzbek plans, 122–23
Uzun Hasan (r. 1453–78), 95
V
Velho, Juliana, 135–37
Velho, Thérèse, 135
Victoria & Albert Museum, London, 189n1
W
Wales, James, 139, 191n50
Waris, Muhammad, 166, 193n33 218
women: in changing social system, 79, 186n75
royal Mughal women as patrons of architecture, 102–3, 188n42
Y
Yahya Kashi, 166
Z
Zafar Mahal, Mehrauli, Delhi (c. 1806–58): and dargah of Bakhtiyar Kaki, 67, 178
and invocation of imperial past, 1, 2, 178
plan of, 61
view of, xii, 179
Ẓafarnāma, 152
Ẓafarnāma-i Shāh Jahāni, 166
Zain al-Din, shrine in Khuldabad, Aurangabad, 60
Zayn al-ʿAbidin Shirwani, Bustān al-Siyāḥat (Garden of voyaging, 1833–34), 168–69
Zinat al-Masjid, Delhi, 1707, 71
Zinat al-Nisa, Mughal princess, 71