Index

agrarianism, 4 6, 156, 214, 292–93, 320, 352; Jeffersonian, 64, 227, 320, 415n44; transition to industrialism, 4, 234, 236–37, 292, 321; twentieth century, 352–53

agriculture, 4, 86, 103, 199, 211, 249, 289, 302, 415n44; California, 230–36, 237–39; Civil War and, 156, 162, 163, 187; homesteading, 6, 187, 211–19, 288; Indian, 43–45; Nininger, 303–4; postwar West, 211, 214–19, 228, 230–36, 291–92; socialist, 63–64, 65; South, 235; tenant farming, 99, 101; twentieth century, 352–53, 355, 358–59. See also specific crops

Alaska, 276, 277

Albany, New York, 57, 59, 192

Allen, Zachariah, 157–58

Allston, Washington, 80

ALS, 272, 274, 282

Alzheimer’s disease, 204, 338–42, 366

American Antiquarian Society, 52

amputees, Civil War, 138, 139, 140–41, 144–45, 153, 155, 191, 195, 198, 198, 199, 420n2, 431n105

Ancient Monuments of the Mississippi Valley, 306–7

angiogram, 324, 326

animals, 2, 31, 79, 144, 174, 215, 217, 235, 239

Antarctica, 344

Anti-Poverty Society, 288

anti-Semitism, 38, 284–85, 337–38

Apache Indians, 189

apocalypse, 299, 301, 317, 346, 450n30; Atlantis and, 301–7; of Cole, 346

Appalachians, 87

apples, 39, 40, 41, 42, 44, 45, 71–72, 115, 302, 393n93

Arbor Day, 449n22

arboriculture, 249

Arcadia, California, 309

Arcadia Center for Sustainable Food and Agriculture, 355

Arcadianism, 3, 5, 12, 62; antebellum, 5–8, 19–61, 62–95, 96–136, 265, 378n15, 388n23; arboreal tradition, 156–57; Atlantis and, 300–307, 316–21, 328–36; Bryant and, 20–21, 103–6, 160–61; of Cather, 351; Civil War and, 138–209, 329–30; Cleveland and, 242–51, 257–70; Cole and, 121–36, 344–46; Donnelly and, 300–307, 328–36; Downing and, 112–21; Fuller and, 74–84; Garland and, 211–19, 286–99; George and, 225–36, 274–81; Hawthorne and, 62–74, 216–17; Hudson River School, 121–36, 188; industrialism and, 98–100; Irving and, 36–37, 105–7; middle landscapes of New England culture, 62–95; in New York State, 96–136; postbellum, 87–89, 146, 187, 194–209, 210–51, 252–99, 300–336; postbellum West, 87–89, 187, 188, 194, 210–51, 252–99; Progressive Era, 333–36, 350; stumps and, 137–209; Thoreau and, 83–95; twentieth-century, 350–59; Whitman and, 140–41, 144–45,164–72, 189, 332–33. See also specific Arcadians

Ariès, Philippe, 177

Aristotle, 5

Arlington National Cemetery, 173

Armageddon, 321, 332

Armstrong, Louis, 181–82

art, 2, 64, 103, 283; antebellum Arcadian, 64, 96–97, 99, 104, 115, 121–36; postbellum, 188–91, 210. See also painting; prints and printing; sculpture; specific artists

artificial limbs, 198–99, 201, 431n105

Atlanta, 57, 242

Atlantis, 3, 6, 88, 300–307, 316–21, 328–36, 396n122, 450n33; burial practices, 306; Donnelly and, 300–307, 328–36; legend, 316–21

Atlantis: The Lost Empire (film), 450n33

Atwater, Caleb, 51–52

Atwood, Margaret, “Death by Landscape,” 459n44

Auden, W. H., 378n14

autumn, 69–70, 72, 94–95

axe, 157–58

Axelrad, Al, Meditations of a Maverick Rabbi, 257

Bachmann, John, Bird’s Eye View of Greenwood Cemetery, 58, 58

back pain, 309, 312

Bacon, Francis, 319, 451n42; The New Atlantis, 396n122

Bailey, Liberty Hyde, 352–53, 354, 367; The Holy Earth, 352

Baker Street Cemetery, Newton, Massachusetts, 203–6

Baltimore, 57–58

barley, 218

Barnard, D. D., 59, 399n163

Barnes, Julian, 343, 366; Nothing to Be Frightened Of, 343

Barthes, Roland, 349

Bartlett, Enoch, 40, 367

Bartlett, W. H., 417n62; Cemetery of Mount Auburn, 6, 6, 105; View of Hudson City, and the Catskill Mountains, 105, 105

Bartlett pear, 40, 366–67, 367, 368

Barton, Benjamin Smith, 51, 317, 397n135, 450n38, 451n38; New Views of the Origin of the Tribes and Nations of America, 317; Papers Relative to Certain American Antiquities, 317

Baumann, E., North Western Part of Llewellyn Park, 102, 103

beauty, 377n10

Bellamy, Edward, 280, 326–28, 331, 333; Equality, 328; Looking Backward, 326–28

Bellamy Clubs, 327

Bellefontaine Cemetery, St. Louis, 59, 60

Bellows, Henry, 164, 387n18

Benjamin, Walter, 16; The Arcades Project, 16, 382n34; “The Storyteller,” 347

Berkeley, California, 221, 224, 225, 253

Berman, Marshall, All That Is Solid Melts into Air, 436n53

Berry, Wendell, 352

Bible, 131, 307, 317

Bierstadt, Albert, 188–91, 210, 427n79; The Rocky Mountains, 188–89, 189, 190; Valley of the Yosemite, 190, 190; western paintings of, 188–91

Bigelow, Jacob, 30–32, 38, 43, 46, 51, 317, 390n49, 394n102; “A Discourse on the Burial of the Dead,” 31, 391n53; Elements of Technology, 30–31; “The Limits of Education,” 31

birches, 186

birds, 172, 174, 175, 177, 178, 181, 182, 186, 208, 209, 215

Birkmaier, Elizabeth G., Poseidon’s Paradise: The Romance of Atlantis, 300, 321

bison, 217, 235

Black Hawk War, 296

blacks, 38, 57, 59, 187, 194, 287, 334, 392n76; Civil War troops, 194; free, 196; Reconstruction, 196; suffrage, 307. See also slavery

Blank, Amy K. (Grandma), 131–133, 174, 178–180, 183, 254, 427n69

Blank, Sheldon H. (Grandaddy), 132, 133, 147, 178, 181, 325, 427n71

Blight, David, 202

Boston, 6, 23, 43, 56, 62, 64, 111, 115, 121, 170, 171, 196, 218, 219, 286–92, 335–36, 343, 354; Brahmins, 42, 46; Emerald Necklace, 194, 260; Mount Auburn Cemetery, 21–64; parks, 194, 248, 260, 286, 335

Boston Common, 23–24, 26, 27, 43, 115, 171, 218, 258, 286, 288, 301; Great Elm, 156

Boston Common, or Rural Walks in Cities, The, 26–27

Boston Manufacturing Company, 30

Boston Public Garden, 43, 115, 171

Boston Public Library, 286

Boston School of Oratory, 286, 292

Boston Woman’s Journal, 290

boulevards, 73

Boy Scouts, 335

Brady, Matthew, 146

brain hemorrhage, author’s experience with, 321–26

Brandeis University, 220, 221

Brimmer, George, 30

Brook Farm, 63–64, 65, 66–71, 74, 203

Brooklyn, 57, 58–61, 115, 242, 246, 280, 281, 385n9

Bryant, William Cullen, 1, 6, 20–21, 32, 35–36, 59, 97, 103–6, 118, 158, 333, 384nn6–7, 392n70, 412n19, 413n26; The American Landscape, 104–5; Arcadia and, 20–21, 103–6, 160–61; Cole and, 121, 133–35; death and burial of, 164–65; “Hymn to Death,” 36; “An Indian at the Burial Place of His Fathers,” 36, 161; “The Murdered Traveler,” 36; on nature, 20–21, 36, 103–6, 160–61; park system proposal for New York, 104–5; “A Scene on the Banks of the Hudson,” 20–21; “Thanatopsis,” 1, 36, 217, 392n70; “The Two Graves,” 36, 434n17; “The Utility of Trees,” 161

Buell, Lawrence (Larry), 179–80, 380n19, 384n7, 389n28, 392n70

Buffalo, New York, 57, 263, 438n79, 441n18

Buffalo Bill, 188, 194

Bunyan, John, 108; The Pilgrim’s Progress, 108, 132

burial alive, 324

burial mounds, Indian. See Mounds

Burned-Over District, 97, 312

burning, 44

California, 85, 190, 191, 210, 219–51, 253, 271, 309, 312, 360; agriculture, 230–36, 237–39; postwar, 225–36, 276; railroads, 231–34; Yosemite, 190–94

canal boat, 73

cancer, 62–63, 90, 148, 181, 182, 185, 186, 252, 254, 283, 313

Cape Cod, 83

capitalism, 4, 6, 25–30, 59, 64, 65, 100, 107, 144, 160, 161, 194, 225, 231–35, 246, 267, 302, 327, 353, 358, 416n53. See also commerce; industrialism

Capitol, U.S., 188

carbon emissions, 361

Carnac, 311

Carson, Anne, Nox, 349

Carson, Kit, 189

Carson, Rachel, Silent Spring, 11, 348, 455n5

catastrophes, 6, 82, 126, 348, 361

Cather, Willa, 351; Arcadianism and, 351; My Ántonia, 351; O Pioneers!, 351; The Song of the Lark, 351

Catskill, New York, 123, 135, 136

Catskill Mountains, 99, 100, 105, 135, 144

cattle, 102, 144, 188, 230, 435n34

Cayuga Indians, 16

cemeteries, 3, 4, 19–61, 67, 172–73, 203–7, 301, 322, 324, 343, 347, 387n16; ancient, 311; antebellum views on, 19–61, 94–95, 96–98, 105–10, 113, 129–36, 399n154, 399n163; European influence on, 32–33, 36–37, 43, 46, 56–57; first American, 21–23; garden-style, 6, 13–15, 21–61, 199, 399n154; Jewish graves, 172, 204–5, 325, 343; Mount Auburn, 6, 15, 21–64, 75, 81, 83, 98, 113, 117, 136, 171, 192, 193, 196, 249, 258, 260, 301, 319, 366, 381n30, 386n15, 387n18, 389n34, 389n36, 391n68, 392n76, 394n102, 395n112, 397n138; Mount Repose, 13–14, 14, 15–17, 19, 365; national, 196–97, 197, 202, 430n103; nature and, 6, 13–15, 21–61, 199; New York State, 96–98, 105–10; of Olmsted, 192; playgrounds in, 362; postbellum, 196–99, 257–60, 268–69; religion and, 22, 37–38, 129, 131, 392n76; removing corpses to, 22–23; rural, 25–27, 46, 56–61, 64–65, 72–73, 104, 106–7, 115, 116, 195, 196, 203–5, 241, 245, 251, 258; Sleepy Hollow (Concord), 61, 72–73, 94, 96, 119, 171, 172, 194, 218, 242, 243, 258, 400n169; Sleepy Hollow (Tarrytown), 96, 106–7, 409n1; terminology, 22; Western, 192, 233. See also death; graves and gravestones; mourning; repose; rural cemeteries; specific cemeteries and designers

Cemetery of the Evergreens, Brooklyn, 115

Central Park, New York City, 6, 35, 102, 115, 119–21, 170, 191, 198, 274, 279, 328; design of, 119–21, 191, 248

Chancellorsville, Battle of, 420n1

Charles River, 25, 30, 38, 60, 64, 67, 360

Charleston, 57, 317

Chateaubriand, 45–46

Cherokee Indians, 47

Cherokee Nation v, Georgia, 47

ch’i, 312

Chicago, 73, 80, 81, 111, 192, 242, 258, 268, 288, 294; 1893 World’s Fair, 294, 334; landscape design, 248–50; park system, 248–50, 259

children’s literature, trees in, 156–57, 424n32

Chinese Exclusion, 231

Chinese geomancy, 312, 316

Chinese immigrants, 231–32, 237, 276, 435n35

Chocorua Peak, 125–26

cholera, 20, 249

Christianity, 37–38, 74, 111, 129, 384n4

Church, Frederic Edwin, 129, 135, 189, 412n19, 419n88, 427n79; To the Memory of Cole, 135, 135, 136

churches, 6, 22, 23, 36–38, 164, 356, 389n34, 392n76, 392n77

Cincinnati, 57, 59, 178, 180, 192

cities. See specific cities; urbanization; urban planning

City Beautiful Movement, 12, 334, 453n67

Civil War, 4, 31, 67, 72, 84, 116, 138–209, 210, 211–12, 230, 236, 245–46, 278, 289, 305, 339, 354, 361, 384n4, 420n1, 422n17, 431n114, 455n80; amputees, 138, 139, 140–41, 144–45, 153, 155, 191, 195, 198, 198, 199, 420n2, 431n105; Arcadianism and, 138–209, 329–30; Battle of the Wilderness, 140, 148–49, 149, 150–54, 154, 155–57, 190, 202–3, 208, 305, 420n1, 423n20, 423n29, 446n69; battlefield protection, 202–3; black troops, 194; effect on land, 4, 138–64, 423n20; frontier migration following, 87–89, 187, 188, 194, 211–19, 241, 247–48, 296; Hawthorne on, 72–73; memory, 38, 153, 155, 161–72, 194–99, 354; national cemeteries for soldiers of, 196–97, 202, 430n103; paintings, 154, 154, 155, 161–62, 162, 163, 163, 186; Peninsular Campaign, 191; photography, 139, 146–48, 149, 151, 158, 159; trees and, 148–61, 423n20; veterans, 138–41, 162–63, 163, 164, 194–201, 211–12, 228, 231, 264; West, 187–94; Whitman and, 140–41, 144–45, 153–54, 157, 162, 165–71, 290

Clarke, Sarah, 80

Cleveland, Grover, 246

Cleveland, H. W. S., 73, 119–20, 194, 211, 242–51, 257–70, 289, 293, 294, 302, 309, 311, 319, 334, 349, 354, 379n18, 437n58, 438n61, 438n79, 439n82, 440n15, 440n17, 441n18, 441n20, 442nn23–28, 443n32, 444n42, 449n22; Arcadianism and, 242–51, 257–70; as cemeterian, 73, 94, 119, 242–43, 257–60, 269; death and grave of, 268–69, 269; family obligations, 244–45, 268–69; A Few Hints on Landscape Gardening in the West, 258; Hints to Riflemen, 246; “The Influence of Parks on the Character of Children,” 269; Landscape Architecture, as Applied to the Wants of the West, 73, 210, 242, 246, 250, 258, 264; landscape design, 242–51, 257–70; “Landscape Gardening,” 245; Sleepy Hollow design, 73, 94, 119, 242, 243, 258; Twin Cities park system, 259–60, 260, 261, 261, 262, 262, 263–68; as urban planner, 242–51, 257–70

Cleveland, Ohio, 57

climate change, 5, 10, 40, 111, 308, 326

Clive, John, 176–77; Not by Fact Alone: Essays on the Writing and Reading of History, 179

coal, 86, 335

Coffin, Nathaniel, 97–98; The Forest Arcadia of Northern New York, 97, 157

coffins, 197; burial alive in, 324

Cole, Thomas, 52–53, 96–97, 121–36, 138, 143, 144, 165, 188, 344–46, 412n19, 418n74, 418n78, 419n88, 421n9, 427n79; Arcadianism and, 121–36, 344–46; Bryant and, 121, 133–35; Catskill Scenery, 418n78; The Course of Empire, 52, 121–22, 417n64; The Course of Empire: The Arcadian or Pastoral State, 122, 122, 123; The Course of Empire: Desolation, 52, 53, 122, 344; The Cross in the Wilderness, 129, 130, 131, 135, 136; Daniel Boone at His Cabin at Great Osage Lake, 127, 128; death and grave of, 131–32, 132, 133–36; Dream of Arcadia, 123, 123, 124; Evening in Arcady, 124–25, 125; Expulsion from the Garden of Eden, 124–25; The Good Shepherd, 131; “The Lament of the Forest,” 128, 418n74; Landscape, 418n78; Landscape, Sleepy Hollow, 412n21; The Oxbow, 345–46, 346; Subsiding of the Waters of the Deluge, 344–45, 345; A View of the Mountain Pass Called the Notch of the White Mountains (Crawford Notch), 126–27, 127; The Voyage of Life, 121, 129; The Voyage of Life: Manhood, 129, 130

Coleridge, Samuel, 377n10

Coles, Robert, The Call of Stories: Teaching and the Moral Imagination, 175–78

Colorado, 190

Columbia University, 270

commerce, 20, 65, 107, 302, 356; international, 292. See also industrialism

commonwealth, postbellum concept of, 266–67, 276–77

communism, 303

communitarianism, 4, 63–64, 112; Brook Farm, 63–64, 65, 66–71; Oneida, 101–2, 113

Concord, Massachusetts, 61, 71–74, 88, 94–95, 108, 170–72, 218, 400n169; Sleepy Hollow Cemetery, 61, 72–73, 94, 96, 119, 171, 172, 194, 218, 242, 243, 258, 400n169

Confederacy, 148–57

Congregational Church, 37

Conn, Steven, 46

conservation, 144, 159–61, 422n11, 454n74; Progressive Era, 333–36, 350. See also environmentalism; wilderness preservation

consumerism, 4, 227, 237, 246, 247, 302, 327, 333, 348

Cook, Zebedee, Jr., 32

Cooper, James Fenimore, 20, 109–10, 409n3, 412n19, 414n30, 414n31; Leatherstocking Tales, 409n3

Cooper, Susan Fenimore, 97, 106, 109–10, 111, 113, 412n19, 413n30, 414n31, 416n52; Rural Hours, 109–10, 119

Copeland, Robert Morris, 119, 120, 194–95, 243, 245, 319, 403n29, 429n96, 439n81, 441n18; Civil War and, 194–95; Country Life: A Handbook of Agriculture, Horticulture, and Landscape Gardening, 119; The Most Beautiful City in America: Essay and Plan for the Improvement of the City of Boston, 194–95, 248; Sleepy Hollow design, 73, 94, 119

corn, 44, 45, 215

Cornell University, 2, 8–13, 285, 324, 375n3, 429n96; Redbud Woods conflict, 8–13, 312, 355

cotton, 187, 318

Country Life movement, 352

Crawford, Notch, 126, 127

Cronon, William, “The Trouble with Wilderness,” 375n4, 376n9, 403n23

Cropsey, Jasper, 412n19

Croton Aqueduct, 97, 104, 107, 319

Curtis, George William, 119, 244, 438n66, 451n43

Custer, George Armstrong, 262, 287

Dakota, 213–15, 218, 219, 226, 288, 293

Dakota Indians, 263

Dana, Richard Henry, 108; “Daybreak,” 108

Darwinism, 250

Davis, Alexander Jackson, 102, 115

Dayton National Cemetery, 196, 197

Dearborn, Henry, 45, 46

Dearborn, Henry A. S., 26, 27, 28, 29–30, 32, 39, 43, 45, 46, 49, 52

Dearborn, Nathaniel, 398n150

Dearborn’s Seedling, 112, 113

death, 4, 7–8, 17, 19, 62, 84, 172–86, 203–9, 281, 343, 347–50, 384n4; antebellum views on, 19–61, 83–84, 89–90, 94–95, 96–98, 105–7, 109–10, 129–36; author’s experiences with, 62–63, 68–69, 89–95, 131–33, 145–48, 172–83, 203–7, 252–54, 315–16, 336–46, 362–68; Battle of the Wilderness, 148–57; by landscape, 347–68; Civil War and, 138–72, 194–98, 354; communitarian traditions of dealing with, 4; denial and, 20, 146–48, 177, 350, 366; fear of, 324–25; food and, 39–42; Indian, 45–51; industrialization of, 4, 196–98; Irving on, 36–37, 105–7; postbellum, 196–99, 217–18, 257–59, 268–69, 291, 333; Thoreau on, 83–84, 89–90, 93; unexpected, 362–65. See also cemeteries; graves and gravestones; mourning; repose

Decoration Day, 195–96, 199, 326

deforestation, 98, 100, 136, 141–44, 155–61, 306, 361, 425n42; Civil War, 155–61; postbellum, 247, 306, 354; tree stumps, 122–23, 126, 128, 136, 136–38, 139, 141, 142, 143–44, 151, 155

Delbanco, Andrew, 390n52

dementia, 204, 338–42, 366

democracy, 170; Jacksonian, 22, 47, 386n15; postbellum, 213, 233, 292–93

Democrats, 150, 233, 246, 291, 292, 386n15

denial, 187, 308, 321, 322, 329, 339, 340, 342; death and, 20, 146–48, 177, 350, 366; of nature, 321

Depression of 1893, 279, 300

Detroit, 57, 355

Dial, The, 74

Dickey, James, Deliverance, 2

Dickinson, Emily, 420n2

disease, 20, 62, 82, 90, 145–46, 176, 217, 249–50, 272, 274; germ theory of, 250

Donnelly Ignatius, 5, 6, 300–307, 309, 311, 320, 328–36, 346, 448nn12–13, 449n15, 449n22, 449n25, 450n25, 450n37, 454n72, 454n74; anti-Semitism of, 337–38; Arcadianism and, 300–307, 328–36; on Atlantis, 300–307, 328–36; Atlantis: The Antediluvian World, 301–7, 448n12, 449n15; Caesar’s Column: A Story of the Twentieth Century, 300, 301, 328–33, 336, 452n54, 453n60; death of, 336; on Indians, 306–7; Nininger City and, 303–4; Pine Land investigation, 334

Downing, Andrew Jackson, 5, 56, 60, 97, 102, 112–21, 152, 155, 156, 160, 227, 238, 242, 243, 319, 352, 356, 367, 381n28, 415n44, 416n54, 438n66; Arcadianism and, 112–21; death of, 118–19, 120; The Fruits and Fruit Trees of America, 112, 119; horticulture and, 112–21; Horticulturist articles, 97, 109, 116, 120; influence on urban planning, 115–21; landscape design, 112–21; “The New-York Park,” 119; Rural Essays, 109; Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening, Adapted to North America, 114, 119, 120, 121, 411n14

Dreiser, Theodore, 359

Dreyfus Affair, 284–85, 313, 314, 315, 338

Durand, Asher B., 124, 134, 412n19; Kindred Spirits, 134, 134, 135, 136

Dutch elm disease, 39, 171

earthquakes, 220, 321

East Rock, New Haven, 241, 257, 270, 273

ecology, 10–12, 33, 41, 64, 355; restoration, 361. See also environmentalism

economy, 4; antebellum, 318; capitalist, 25–30, 100, 234; Depression of 1893, 279, 300; market, 29, 64, 386n15; Panic of 1857, 228, 303; postbellum, 214, 225–36, 300; Silicon Valley, 238–41; twentieth century, 358

ecosystems, 10, 244, 361

Eden, 43, 45, 54, 61, 71, 77, 78, 88, 124, 301, 378n14, 388n23, 398n141

electric streetcars, 320

electronics industry, 238

elegy, 79, 80, 82, 93, 135, 140, 162, 170, 184, 208, 313, 349, 426n57

elk, 217

Ellison, Ralph, Invisible Man, 181–82

elms, 39, 156, 171, 286, 294

Elson, Henry, 151

Elysian Fields, 88, 89, 301, 319

Emerson, George B., Report on the Trees and Shrubs Growing Naturally in the Forests of Massachusetts, 158

Emerson, Ralph Waldo, 20, 32, 61, 65, 71, 72, 74, 170, 194, 218, 399n153; death and grave of, 172; Fuller and, 74–76, 80–83; ideal of self-culture, 74; Transcendentalism of, 75–76; Whitman and, 170–72

Encounters at the End of the World (film), 344

Endicott, W., Prattsville, Greene Co., N.Y., 100, 101

England, 15, 28, 43, 82, 87, 266, 305, 381n30, 393n78; earthworks and mounds, 306, 311; Enclosure Acts, 28; industrialization, 56; influence on American cemeteries, 32–33, 36–37, 43, 46, 56–57; landscape tradition, 32–37, 46, 79, 104, 114; privatization of land, 28

environmentalism, 2–4, 8–17, 111, 273, 312, 348, 380n19, 454n72; Civil War era, 157–61; concern for trees, 157–61, 306; global approach, 360–61; modern movement, 4, 360; postbellum, 190–94, 210, 235, 244; Progressive Era, 333–36, 350; Redbud Wood conflict, 8–13, 312, 355; twenty-first century, 355–56, 360–61. See also conservation; wilderness preservation

Erie Canal, 13, 73–74, 97, 311

eulogies, 6, 133, 178–79, 182–83, 254, 333

Europe, 32–33, 36–37, 43, 48, 55, 393n78; influence on American cemeteries, 32–33, 36–37, 43, 46, 56–57

Evans, George Henry, 101

Evelyn, John, 36

Everett, Alexander, 55, 393n78

Everett, Edward, 389n34, 451n42

expansionism, 5, 48, 55, 86, 107, 122

exploration, 12

factories, 23, 30, 64, 86, 87, 99, 99, 100, 266, 269, 276, 318, 321; pollution, 99, 100

Fairmount Gardens, Philadelphia, 105, 301

Farming, see agrarianism; agriculture

Farview Park, Minneapolis, 259, 260, 262

feminism, 22, 64, 74, 75, 312, 414n30

feng-shui, 312

fertilizers, 44

Finger Lakes, 44, 46, 97, 309, 311, 316, 382n32

Flaubert, Gustave, 176, 284, 382n34

Folwell, William Watts, 258, 259, 444n42

food, 39; death and, 39–42; fresh, 355; home-grown, 41–43, 71; store-bought, 234

Fort Snelling State Park, Minneapolis, 264, 442n26

France, 33, 255, 266, 312, 368, 393n78; Dreyfus Affair, 284–85, 314, 338

Franconia Notch, 125

Frank Leslie’s Illustrated Newspaper, 163

Free Soil Society, 278

French, Stanley, 389n36

French, William M. R., 440n11

Fresh Air Fund, 335

Freud, Sigmund, 184, 185

frontier, 73–74; Civil War, 187–94; Garland and, 211–19, 288, 293–98; middle border, 210–19; postbellum, 87–89, 187, 188, 194, 210–51, 252–99; postwar migration, 87–89, 187, 188, 194, 211–19,241, 247–48, 296; Thoreau on, 84–89; women, 77–78, 216, 219, 405nn45–46. See also West; wilderness

fruit, 4, 39–41, 41, 42, 44, 45, 71, 112–13, 113, 115, 302, 366–67, 367, 368

Fruitlands, 243, 438n61

Fugitive Slave Law, 85–86

Fuller, Margaret, 20, 64, 72, 74–84, 86, 88, 96, 111, 118, 126, 166, 170, 213, 295, 404n33, 404n45, 405n46, 414n30; Arcadianism and, 74–84; in Concord, 74; Conversations, 109; death of, 83; Emerson and, 74–76, 80–83; as feminist, 74, 75; “The Great Lawsuit,” 75–77; on Indian displacement, 74, 76, 78–81; in shipwreck, 82–83; Summer on the Lakes, in 1843, 77–81; Woman in the Nineteenth Century, 77

funeral parlors, 4

Garden City movement, 12, 354

gardens, 3, 5, 41–42, 71; cemeteries, 6, 13–15, 21–61, 199, 399n154; Mount Auburn, 39–43

Gardner, Alexander, 146; Photographic Sketch Book of the War, 146

Garland, Hamlin, 5, 6, 211–19, 225, 226, 228, 281, 286–99, 302, 303, 309, 319, 329, 330, 333, 334, 351, 352, 433nn7–8, 434n18, 446n69, 446n71, 446n81; Arcadianism and, 211–19, 286–99; in Boston, 286–92; A Daughter of the Middle Border, 297; death of, 339; family obligations, 211–19, 288–97; frontier and, 211–19, 288, 293–98; homelessness of, 286–99; on Indians, 287–88, 295–98; Jason Edwards, An Average Man, 292; “The Literary Emancipation of the West,” 294; Main-Travelled Roads, 290–91; moves back east, 219, 225, 286–92; Populist politics and, 292–93; “The Return of a Private,” 211–12, 290; “The Silent Eaters,” 252; “The Social Aspect of the Land Tax,” 288; A Son of the Middle Border, 211–19, 294–97, 351, 446n81; “Under the Lion’s Paw,” 290–91, 293; “Up the Coolly,” 287, 289

Garland, Richard, 211–19, 288–97, 433n17

Garrison, William Lloyd, 145

General Allotment Act (1887), 295–96

geomancy, 13, 312, 316

George, Henry, 5, 6, 211, 225–36, 241, 247, 266, 274–81, 287–88, 291, 293, 296, 298, 302, 303, 306, 309, 352, 353, 354, 435n35, 435nn39–40; Arcadianism and, 225–36, 274–81; death and burial of, 280–81; Our Land and Land Policy, 228, 230, 233; politics and, 278–80; Progress and Poverty, 225, 226, 228, 274–79, 281, 290, 301, 303, 320; racism of, 231, 234, 276; Single Tax of, 225–26, 236, 275, 290, 292, 303, 333; Social Problems, 227; socioeconomic agenda of, 225–36, 274–81; “What the Railroad Will Bring Us,” 232

Gettysburg, 17, 149, 172

ghosts and phantoms, 105–6, 138, 161, 316, 349

Gifford, Sanford Robinson, 143, 188–89; Hunter Mountain, Twilight, 141, 142, 143, 144

Gilded Age, 4, 211, 226, 265, 266, 269, 279, 303, 333, 354

Gilpin, William, 377n10

Glenwood Cemetery, Watkins Glen, 323

global environment, 8, 10, 11, 360–61

global warming, 5, 111, 181, 308, 326, 344, 349, 454n72

Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von, 74

gold, 85, 86, 107, 188, 228, 231, 303; standard, 303, 334

Golden Gate Park, San Francisco, 277

Gold Medal Park, Minneapolis, 262, 262, 263

Gold Rush, 228, 231

Goldsmith, Oliver, 29, 37, 74, 114, 390n45; “The Deserted Village,” 28–29

gorges, 1–3, 15–17, 322

“Go West” slogan, 187, 427n75

Grand Army of the Republic (GAR), 195

Grange, 216, 290

Grant, Ulysses S., 150, 151, 191, 203, 208, 233, 287, 291, 435n39, 446n69

grapes, 40, 69, 245, 312

graves and gravestones, 22, 325, 347; of author’s family and friends, 204–7, 207; Civil War, 161–62, 162; of Cleveland, 268, 269; of Cole, 131, 132. See also cemeteries

graveyards, 22

Greasy Grass, Battle of the, 262

Great Depression, 356, 359

Great Lakes, 74

Great Serpent Mound, 311

Greece, ancient, 22, 302, 316–17, 379n17

Greeley, Horace, 82, 101, 118, 187, 427n75

Greenbelt, Maryland, 355

“green cemetery” movement, 456n11

green cities, 355–56

Green Mount Cemetery, Baltimore, 58

Green-Wood Cemetery, Brooklyn, 58, 58, 59–61, 281, 385n9

grid, 35, 44, 64, 103, 115–16, 120, 196, 218, 242, 247, 249, 250, 264, 303, 333, 389n36, 391n66

guerilla warfare, 152–53

Gulf War, 220

guns, 246

Gunther, John, 173

Guthrie, Woody, “This Land is Your Land,” 393n92

Hall, Donald, Life Work, 183–86

Hall, Stuart, 376n8

Hamann, Dutch, 238, 239

Harmony Grove Cemetery, Salem, Massachusetts, 46

Harper & Brothers, 304

Harper’s Weekly, 107, 154, 422n17

Harris, Thaddeus Mason, 49–51; The Journal of a Tour into the Territory Northwest of the Alleghany Mountains, 49–50

Harris, Thaddeus William, 49, 51

Harrison, Robert Pogue, 40, 89, 92, 109, 383n35, 398n141, 407n86, 408n97, 413n30, 450n30

Harvard College, 37, 49, 56, 178, 182, 314

Haskell, Llewellyn, 102, 116

Hawking, Stephen, 282, 315

Hawthorne, Maria Louisa, 119

Hawthorne, Nathaniel, 20, 32, 43, 62–74, 88, 96, 108, 111, 119, 124, 126, 17, 218, 401n5, 402n11, 402n20, 403n21, 418n71; Arcadianism and, 62–74, 216–17; The Blithedale Romance, 62, 65, 67, 70, 216; at Brook Farm, 63–64, 65, 66–71; “The Celestial Rail-road,” 108; on Civil War, 72–73; in Concord, 71–74; death and grave of, 73, 171; “The Lily’s Quest,” 61, 63; Mosses from an Old Manse, 73, 216; “The New Adam and Eve,” 54; The Scarlet Letter, 65

heart disease, 176, 283, 364

Heiman, M. K., 128

Hemans, Felicia, 129, 419n81

Henry, Alexander, 93

Henry, Joseph, 117

Herne, James, 281

Herzog, Werner, Encounters at the End of the World, 344

Heywood, Stephen, 240, 271–74, 282, 286, 315–16

Hidden Falls Regional Park, Minneapolis, 264

Higginson, Thomas Wentworth, 196

Holmes, Oliver Wendell, 198–99

homelessness, postbellum, 252–99

Homer, Winslow, 154–55, 158, 423n29; The Initials, 155, 156, 161; Skirmish in the Wilderness, 154, 154, 155, 162, 424n29; Trooper Meditating beside a Grave, 161–62, 162; The Veteran in a New Field, 162–63, 163, 186

Homestead Act (1862), 187, 189

homesteading, 6, 187, 211–19, 288

horticulture, 26–43, 102, 156, 245, 277, 415n44; antebellum, 26–43, 112–21; Downing and, 112–21; European influence on, 32–33; garden-style cemeteries, 6, 13–15, 21–61, 199, 399n154; Indian, 43–45; Mount Auburn, 26–43

Horticulturist, 97, 109, 116, 120

Hoskins, William Walton, Atlantis, and Other Poems, 320–21

hospice movement, 456n10

hospitals, 64; postbellum, 197–98; private, 4

Houston, 111

Howard, Ebenezer, 354

Howells, William Dean, 286

Hudson City, New York, 105, 105

Hudson River, 96, 97, 106, 117, 118, 121–36

Hudson River School, 64, 96–97, 115, 121–36, 188

Hudson River valley, 59, 96, 97, 106, 112, 115, 121–36; “The Wilderness,” 152

Humboldt, Alexander von, 158, 306, 317, 399n163, 449n20

humility, 2, 3, 8, 16, 17, 23, 32, 33, 50, 53, 58, 61, 65, 80, 86, 112, 147, 156, 177, 299, 360

Humphreys, A. A., 152

hurricanes, 82; Katrina, 307, 315

Hyde, Lewis, 406n70

Illinois, 79, 214, 215, 268, 296

immigrants, 59, 215, 224, 231, 238–39, 296, 334, 354, 435n35

imperialism, 15, 48, 52, 77, 98, 300, 385n9, 396n122

Inconvenient Truth, An (film), 308

Indiana, 214, 242

Indian Mounds Park, St. Paul, 260–61, 261, 267

Indians, 6, 16, 20, 29, 36, 43–54, 74, 87, 101, 105, 121, 126, 129, 148, 188–90, 213, 217, 218, 275, 276, 287–88, 309, 310, 317, 382n32, 385n9, 392n76, 395n112, 414n31, 451n38; agriculture, 43–45; artifacts, 267; Black Hawk War, 296; Donnelly on, 306–7; Fuller on, 74, 76, 78–81; Garland on, 287–88, 295–98; General Allotment Act and, 295–96; Irving on, 106; massacres, 189, 295; Mounds, 46–47, 47, 48–51, 51, 52–54, 59, 81, 261–63, 267, 278, 305, 306–7, 310, 316–17, 321, 396n122, 397n137, 440n17, 450n25, 450n37; myth of vanished, 106; as “noble savages,” 45; Olmsted and, 193; postbellum, 287–88, 295–98; Removal, 45, 46, 47, 55, 59, 80, 85, 189, 193; reservations, 296, 297; Thoreau on, 93–94; villages, 105; Wars, 44, 152, 295, 296, 306; women, 81, 414n31. See also specific tribes

individualism, 64, 70, 107, 112, 266–67

industrialism, 4, 6, 9, 20, 23–24, 29, 30, 37, 41, 59, 64, 87, 98, 107, 121, 143–44, 186, 194, 327, 358, 411n9; Arcadianism and, 98–100; Civil War, 151, 155–56; death industry, 4, 196–98; New York State, 98–99, 99, 100; postbellum, 225–36, 2237, 245, 247, 275–76, 278, 279, 291–92, 301, 321; transition from agrarianism to, 4, 234, 236–37, 321; twentieth century, 351. See also capitalism; commerce; specific industries

Industrial Revolution, 87, 151

inflation, 226, 303, 334

Ingersoll, Robert, 280, 333

Inness, George, 141, 421n9; The Lackawanna Valley, 141, 142, 143, 144

Internet, 239, 436n52

invasive species, 10

Iowa, 213–18, 259, 292, 351, 356, 433n8

iron, 151

Iroquois Indians, 44, 106, 311

Irving, Washington, 20, 32, 36–37, 96, 105–7, 165, 409n1, 409n3; Arcadianism and, 36–37, 105–7; death and burial of, 106–7; “The Legend of Sleepy Hollow,” 96, 106, 400n169, 409n3; “Mountjoy,” 19; on myth of vanished Indian, 106; on nature and death, 36–37, 105–7; Sketch Book, 36

Irving Park, Tarrytown, New York, 107, 115

Irvington, New York, 116

Italy, 82

Ithaca, New York, 1–4, 8–17, 44, 111, 174, 205, 282, 285, 307–13, 352, 353, 359, 360, 375n3, 381n26, 382n32; Cascadilla Gorge, 2, 3, 9, 13, 16, 308, 313, 382n32; Map of City of, 13, 14; Mount Repose Cemetery, 13–14, 14, 15–17, 19, 365; Redbud Woods conflict, 8–13, 312, 355

Ithaca City Cemetery, 172, 186, 325, 353, 365, 381n27, 381n29

Jackson, Andrew, 22, 47, 55, 80, 122, 386n15

Jackson, Wes, 352

Jacobs, Jane, 11–12; The Death and Life of Great American Cities, 11–12

Jefferson, Thomas, 64, 114, 150, 227, 276, 280, 320, 415n44

Jensen, Jens, 335

Jews, 38, 66, 67, 68, 90, 147, 220, 257, 309, 315, 322, 392n76; anti-Semitism and, 38, 284–85, 337–38; graves and cemeteries, 172, 204–5, 325, 343; Shylock stereotype, 337

Johnson, Andrew, 196

Jones Wood, New York City, 118

Kaaterskill Falls, 135

Kanadesaga, 46, 47, 310

Kansas, 187, 199, 259

Katrina, Hurricane, 307, 315

Keats, John, “Seventh Sonnet,” 134

Kentucky, 214

King David Memorial Gardens, Falls Church, Virginia, 172–73

Knapp, Frederick, 199, 200

Knights of Labor, 265

Ku Klux Klan, 194

Kurz, Louis, National Soldiers’ Home near Milwaukee, Wis., North-Western Branch, 199, 200

labor, 59, 215; child, 216; factory, 321; immigrant, 230, 231–34, 238–39; postbellum, 215, 216, 225–36, 274–76, 278, 280, 291, 321; postwar West, 215, 216, 225–34, 291; Southern, 318; strikes, 228, 274–75, 289, 291, 327; unions, 227, 278

Lake Michigan, 248

Lake Superior, 91

Lakeview Cemetery, Ithaca, 353

Lakewood Cemetery, Minneapolis, 268, 269

landscape design, 73, 97, 403n29; Central Park model, 119–21, 191, 248; Chicago, 248–50; of Cleveland, 242–51, 257–70; of Downing, 112–21; European influence on, 32–33, 36–37, 43, 46, 56–57; Mount Auburn, 31, 33–39; of Olmsted, 120, 190–94, 242, 260, 263; postbellum, 211, 241–51, 259–70; Twin Cities, 259–60, 260, 261, 261, 262, 262, 263–68; Sleepy Hollow (Concord), 73, 94, 119, 242, 243, 258; Yosemite, 192–93. See also specific designers and cities

landscape tradition, 5, 16, 144, 201; English, 32–37, 46, 79, 104, 114

land speculation, 49, 107, 115, 187; postwar West, 187, 211–15, 218, 225–26, 231–34, 246, 247, 265–66, 287–88, 291, 296, 303, 435n40; social impact of, 231–34, 287–88, 291, 296, 303

Laurel Hill, Philadelphia, 59, 60, 301

Lee, Robert E., 150

Leopold, Aldo, 352

Leutze, Emmanuel, Across the Continent: Westward the Course of Empire Takes Its Way, 188

Lincoln, Abraham, 150, 172, 187, 232, 280, 296

literature, 5, 64, 103, 284; antebellum Arcadian, 62–95, 96, 104, 108, 409n3; children’s, trees in, 156–57 424n32; Civil War era, 140–41; late nineteenth century Utopian, 301–7, 326–33; twentieth century, 351–52. See also specific authors

Llewellyn Park, West Orange, New Jersey, 102–3, 103, 115, 411n14

Lloyd, Henry Demarest, Wealth and Commonwealth, 336

Logan, John A., 195

Longfellow, Henry Wadsworth, 20, 170, 194

Longstreet, James, 149, 153

Lopate, Phillip, 309

Loring, Charles, 444n42

Los Angeles, 111, 239, 309, 339, 351

lotus, 38

Love, Susan, 254

Lowell, James Russell, 194

Lowell, Massachusetts, 23, 56, 318

lupus, 176

Lyon, Charles H., 107

Mackinaw Island, 74, 404n33

Magnolia Cemetery, Charleston, 57, 317

Manifest Destiny, 5, 48, 86, 88, 114, 188, 214

Manning, Robert, 71

Manning, Robert, Jr., 43–44, 71, 119

maples, 80, 215, 294

Marsh, George Perkins, 159–61, 353, 425n42, 455n5; Man and Nature, 159–61, 335

Marx, Leo, 143, 378n15, 404n44

Massachusetts Horticultural Society, 26, 27–28, 29, 32, 39–43, 49, 71, 115, 119, 335

Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 31

Masur, Lou, 165, 179, 182, 211

Mazel, David, 391n53

McKibben, Bill, 348; Eaarth, 456n7

McLellan, Isaac, The Fall of the Indian, 48

McNeill, J. R., 376n8

McPherson, James, 202

Meade, George, 150

medical care, postbellum, 197, 217

melancholy, 4, 16, 25, 36, 37, 55, 138, 156, 244, 379n17, 395n118

Melville, Herman, 32, 140, 211, 353; “The Armies of the Wilderness,” 137, 140; Battle-Pieces and Aspects of the War, 140; Civil War and, 140

Memorial Day, 195

memory, 29, 173, 206; Civil War, 38, 153, 155, 161–72, 194–99, 354

Memphis, 57

Metropolitan Fair (1864), 191

Mexico, 85

Miami Indians, 50

Michelet, Jules, 179

middle class, 115, 358, 443n36

middle landscapes of New England culture, 62–95; of Cole, 121–36

Mielke, Laura, 45, 385n9, 409n3

Military Tract, 44

Miller, Angela, The Empire of the Eye, 127

Miller, William, 54

mills, 15, 29, 30, 56, 84, 298, 318, 331, 390n45

Milwaukee, 57

mining, 98, 235, 291, 335; gold, 85, 86, 188, 228, 231; iron, 151

Minneapolis, 73, 259–69, 288, 334, 354, 444n42; park system, 259–60, 260, 261–62, 262, 263–68, 289

Minnesota, 90–93, 131, 148, 172, 174, 175, 177, 214, 253, 259–67, 303, 306, 307, 336

Mississippi River, 80, 85, 187, 214, 260, 261, 303, 442n30

modernity, 15, 41, 61, 99, 146, 225, 278, 289, 320–21, 326, 327, 350, 353, 387n16

Montaigne, Michel de, 179, 254–57, 438n66, 439nn2–4

Montana, 293, 295

Mormons, 38, 219, 220

Mounds, Indian, 46–47, 47, 48–51, 51, 52–54, 59, 81, 261–63, 267, 278, 305, 306–7, 310, 316–17, 321, 396n122, 397n137, 440n17, 450n25, 450n37

mountains, 53, 78, 125–27, 188–90

Mountain View Cemetery, Oakland, California, 192, 233

Mount Auburn Cemetery, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 6, 15, 21–64, 75, 81, 83, 98, 113, 117, 136, 171, 192, 193, 196, 249, 258, 260, 301, 319, 366, 381n30, 386n15, 387n18, 389n34, 389n36, 391n68, 392n76, 394n102, 395n112, 397n138; as America’s first true cemetery, 21–23; design of, 31, 33–39; European influence on, 32–33, 36–37, 43, 46, 56–57; gardens and greenhouses, 39–43; Native American tradition and, 43, 45–54; Plan of, 33, 34; publications, 53, 56–57, 61; religion and, 37–38; as tourist attraction, 54–57

Mount Hope, Rochester, 59

Mount Repose Cemetery, Haverstraw, New York, 97, 97

Mount Repose Cemetery, Ithaca, New York, 13–14, 14, 15–17, 19, 365, 381n27

mourning, 19, 32, 55, 93, 343, 347–50, 455n6; of author for family and friends, 62–63, 68–69, 89–95, 131–33, 145–48, 172–83, 203–7, 252–54, 315–16, 336–46, 362–68; Civil War, 161–72, 194–98, 354; Indian, 45–51; postbellum, 196–99, 217–18, 291, 333; Thoreau and, 83–84, 89–90, 93. See also cemeteries; death

Muir, John 2, 334

Mulholland Wildflower Preserve, 313

Mumford, Lewis, 353–56, 455n80; The City in History, 356; The Culture of Cities, 354–55

museums, 117, 119, 121, 267, 443n38

national cemeteries, 196–97, 197, 202, 430n103

National Farmers’ Alliance, 292, 328

national parks, 9; system, 9, 190; Yosemite, 190–94

National Park Service, 202

National Reform Association (NRA), 101

Native Americans, see Indians

natural resources, 239, 318, 350; Roosevelt policy on, 334–35. See also specific resources

natural science, 121, 361

nature, 1–8, 408n97; antebellum views on, 19–61, 62–95, 96–136, 265, 378n15, 388n23; Bryant on, 20–21, 36, 103–6, 160–61; cemeteries and, 6, 13–15, 21–61, 199; Civil War and, 138–209; Cleveland and, 242–51, 257–70; Cole and, 121–36, 344–46; denial of, 321; Downing on, 112–21; Garland and, 211–19, 286–99; Hudson River School, 64, 96–97, 115, 121–36, 188; humility and, 2, 3; Irving on, 36–37, 105–7; middle landscapes of New England culture, 62–95; Montaigne on, 255–56; mysterious connections with culture, 311–12; postbellum, 87–89, 146, 187, 194–209, 210–51, 252–99, 300, 301–36; Progressive Era, 333–36, 350; Thoreau and, 84–95; Western painting, 188–91; Whitman and, 140–41, 144–45, 164–72, 189, 332–33. See also Arcadianism

Navajo Indians, 189

Nebraska, 242, 248, 293, 351, 449n22

Nehring, Cristina, 456n8

Newburgh, New York, 97, 117, 118, 119; Balmville Tree, 156; playground in a cemetery, 362

New England, 5, 22, 37, 39, 42, 53, 55, 140, 170, 184, 218, 221, 253, 256, 270, 286, 339; antebellum Arcadianism, 62–95; industrialization, 23, 30, 64; literary culture, 29; middle landscapes of culture of, 62–95. See also specific cities and states

New Haven, 111, 241, 257, 270–73, 362–65

New Jersey, 102, 243

Newman, John B., 451n39

New Nation, The, 328

New Orleans, 57, 307, 315

Newton, Massachusetts, 66–68, 204, 265, 272–73, 282, 286, 339, 342

New York City, 58, 82, 104, 107, 111, 119–21, 164, 191, 218, 227, 232, 265, 274, 278, 279, 293–94, 296, 301, 324, 351; of Caesar’s Column, 328–30; Central Park, 6, 35, 102, 115, 119–21, 170, 191, 198, 248, 274, 279, 328; Commissioners Plan (1811), 35; Downing’s vision for, 119–21; Jones Wood, 118; parks, 104–5, 118–21, 242; postbellum, 227

New York Herald, 274

New York Public Library, 120

New York State, 46, 73, 152, 302, 310, 352; antebellum Arcadianism, 96–136; Downing as horticulturist in, 112–21; Hudson River School, 121–36, 188; industry, 98–99, 99, 100; Oneida community, 101–2, 113

New York Thruway, 311

New York Tribune, 82, 150, 187

Niagara Falls, 2, 3, 54, 74, 78

9/11, 325

Nininger, John, 303–4

Nininger City, 303–4

North, 4; antislavery, 318; Civil War, 148–57, 160, 162, 187, 246; industrialization, 4, 23, 30, 64. See also specific cities and states

Noyes, John Humphrey, 102

Nye, David, 377n11, 379n15, 388n23

Oakland, California, 191, 192, 233, 237

Oakland Cemetery, St. Paul, 259–60, 263

Oatlands, 243

Ohio, 49–50, 178, 180, 192, 199, 214; Mounds, 51, 51, 52–54, 311; poetry, 180, 427n69

Ohio Company, 49

oil, 87, 177

Oklahoma, 296

Olmsted, Frederick Law, 103, 151, 190, 198, 242, 243, 245, 246, 248, 249, 263, 268, 294, 319, 334, 335, 353, 354, 429n91, 429n96, 436n56, 437n57; cemetery design, 192, 233; Central Park design, 120, 191; Emerald Necklace, 194, 260; Indians and, 193; urban park movement, 120, 191, 242, 263, 438n79, 441n18; West and, 190–94, 210, 233; Yosemite and, 190–94

Omaha, 237, 243, 293, 300, 442n23

Oneida Association, 101–2, 113

Order of Patrons of Husbandry, 216

Oregon, 86, 214, 319, 355

Ossoli, Angelo, 82–83

Ossoli, Giovanni, 82–83

O’Sullivan, John L., 48

O’Sullivan, Timothy H., 146, 148, 149, 174, 395n119; A Harvest of Death, 146, 147; Quarters of Men in Fort Sedgwick, 158, 159

Otsego Lake, 109

Our Common Future (report), 360

Overland Monthly, 232

Pacific Railroad Act (1862), 187

painting, 2, 5; American Gothic, 356–57, 357, 358–59; antebellum Arcadian, 64, 96–97, 99, 104, 115, 121–36; Civil War, 154, 154, 155, 161–62, 162, 163, 163, 186; of Cole, 52, 121–36, 344–46, 418n78; Hudson River School, 64, 96–97, 115, 121–36, 188; postbellum, 188–91, 210; of Poussin, 7–8, 80–81, 124–25, 379n17; of West, 188–89, 189, 190, 190, 191, 210, 427n79. See also specific painters and genres

Panic of 1857, 228, 303

Paris, 16, 124, 265, 266; Dreyfus’s grave in, 343; Père Lachaise cemetery, 33, 43

Park and Cemetery, 269

parking lots, 8–13

Parkman, Francis, 335, 378n15

parks, 3, 5, 64, 73; Boston, 194, 248, 260, 286, 335; Chicago, 248–50, 259; national, 9, 190–94; New York City, 104–5, 119–21, 191, 198, 248, 274, 279, 328; Progressive Era, 333–36; Twin Cities, 259–60, 260, 261, 261, 262, 262, 263–68, 289; urban, 64, 104, 117, 118–20, 242, 244, 248–50, 259–67, 379n15, 403n29, 438n79, 441n18, 444n12; Washington, D.C., 117. See also national parks; specific parks

pastoralism, 5, 8, 15, 24, 28, 50, 79, 97, 122, 124, 127, 143, 144, 167, 168, 192, 238, 345, 378n15, 379n17, 402n11, 421n9, 426n54

peaches, 44

pears, 40, 41, 112, 113, 115, 366–67, 367, 368

penitentiaries, 64

People’s Party, 292–93, 336, 337. See also Populism

Père Lachaise cemetery, Paris, 33, 43

Perfectionism, 102

Philadelphia, 57, 59, 60, 192, 228, 229, 232, 301

Phillips, Wendell, 287

photography, 2, 158; Civil War, 139, 146–48, 149, 151, 158, 159

Pickering, John W., 13–15

picturesque, 4, 14, 64, 81, 102, 114, 116, 120, 121, 193, 366, 377n10

Picturesque Pocket Companion, 56, 57, 61, 398n150

pileated woodpecker, 172, 174, 175, 177, 178, 181, 182, 186, 208, 209

Pilgrims, 44, 46

Pinchot, Gifford, 143–44; The Fight for Conservation, 143

Pinchot, James, 143

Pine Land investigation, 334

Piper, R. U., 158, 161; The Trees of America, 157

Pittsburgh, 57

Pittsfield, Massachusetts, 140

plains, 74, 86, 87, 188, 214, 217, 235, 242, 288, 294, 295, 351, 449n22

plants, 2, 31, 38, 39–42, 215, 239, 249, 283

Plato, 302; Atlantis and, 302, 316–17, 319; Critias, 302; Timaeus, 302

poetry, 6, 20, 28–29, 108, 133, 134, 140–41, 161, 182, 320; Ohio, 180, 427n69

politics, 5, 109, 304; 1864 presidential election, 150; 1892 presidential election, 292–93, 300; 1896 presidential election, 336; 1900 presidential election, 336; Populist, 292–93, 300, 336, 337; postbellum, 267, 278–80, 291–93; 2008 presidential election, 308

Pollan, Michael, 40, 41

Populism, 28, 280, 292–93, 300, 302, 334, 336, 337. See also People’s Party

Portland, Oregon, 355

Poussin, Nicolas, 80–81, 124–25, 379n17; The Shepherds of Arcadia, 7, 7, 8

prairies, 6, 78–80, 215; “middle border” of, 6, 211, 215

Pratt, Zadock, 100, 411n9

Prattsville, New York, 100, 101

preservation, see wilderness preservation

Priest, Josiah, 53

prints and printing, 19, 104, 115, 116, 121, 228, 417n62

Progressive Era, 333–36, 350, 444n43, 453n65

Prospect Park, Brooklyn, 242, 246, 441n18

Providence, Rhode Island, 57, 257

public health, 35, 249–50

public libraries, 120, 276, 277, 286

public schools, 276, 277

Puritans, 22, 244, 357

Putnam, Rufus, 49 Putnam’s Monthly Magazine, 319

pyramids, 51, 306, 330, 397n137

Quidor, John, The Headless Horseman Pursuing Ichabod Crane, 138, 138

racism, 38, 45, 47, 231, 234, 276, 296, 306, 307

Radburn, New Jersey, 355

radishes, 39

railroads, 86, 108, 115, 129, 143, 156, 158, 161, 319, 383n1; California, 231–34; impact on urban development of West, 247–48; monopolies, 215, 231–34, 247, 303; postbellum, 228, 231–34, 246–48, 250, 274–75, 279, 291, 292, 303, 336, 354; strikes, 274–75, 291; transcontinental, 167–68, 187, 231, 232, 320

Rauch, John, 249–50

Reconstruction, 193, 196

recreation, 15, 35, 104, 190, 193, 210, 354, 382n33

Redbud woods conflict, 8–13, 312, 355

religion and spirituality, 6, 22, 102, 111, 121, 129, 255, 384n4, 392nn76–77; cemeteries and, 22, 37–38, 129, 13, 392n76; graveyards and, 22

Religious Freedoms Act, 392n77

repose, 19–61, 259, 383n2; antebellum views on, 19–61, 96–136; Mount Auburn and, 21–61; “place of,” 23; rural cemeteries, 25–27, 46, 56–61, 64–65, 72–73, 104, 106–7, 115, 116, 195, 196, 203–5, 241, 245, 251, 258. See also cemeteries; death; graves and gravestones

Republicans, 233, 291, 292

reservoirs and aqueducts, 97, 104, 107, 319

Reston, Virginia, 355

Revolutionary War, 20, 24, 44, 45

Richmond, 57, 150

Riis, Jacob, How the Other Half Lives, 280

Ripley, Ezra, 71–72

Riverside, Illinois, 436n56

Rochester, New York, 57, 59, 192, 324–26

Rock Creek Park, 181

Rocky Mountains, 53, 188–90, 211

Roger Williams Park, Providence, 257

Romanticism, 4, 36, 48–50, 55, 74, 81, 144, 157, 160, 376n9, 377n10, 390n52

Rome, 52

Roosevelt, Theodore, 143, 320, 334

rural cemeteries, 25–27, 46, 56–61, 64–65, 72–73, 104, 106–7, 115, 116, 195, 196, 203–5, 241, 245, 251, 258, 396n120; failure of movement, 251; Green-Wood model, 58, 58, 59–61; Mount Auburn, 6, 15, 21–64, 75, 81, 83, 98, 113, 117, 136, 171, 192, 193, 196, 249, 258, 260, 301, 319, 366, 381n30, 386n15, 387n 18, 389n34, 389n36, 391n68, 392n76, 394n102, 395n112, 397n 138; Sleepy Hollow (Concord), 61, 72–73, 94, 96, 119, 171, 172, 194, 218, 242, 243, 258, 400n169; Sleepy Hollow (Tarrytown), 96, 106–7, 409n1. See also specific cemeteries

Sabbath, 20, 66, 69, 72, 229, 257, 286

Sachs, Benjamin Tevya, 68–69, 132, 146, 204, 223; grave of, 204–7, 207, 343

Sac Indians, 79

Salem, Massachusetts, 43, 46, 65, 120

San Francisco, 221, 225, 228, 235, 237, 274–77

sanitaria, 199–201

Sanitary Commission, 188, 191, 198, 199, 245, 249

sanitation, 249–50

San Jose, 219–20, 237–41, 253, 254, 270

Sargent, Charles Sprague, 335–36

Sault Ste. Marie, 81

Savannah, 57, 442n23

Schaff, Morris, 152–53

Schuyler, David, 38, 116, 379n15

Scott, Frank, 263

Scranton, Pennsylvania, 143

sculpture, funerary, 33, 38, 39

Second Great Awakening, 22, 59

Seneca Indians, 44, 46, 310

Seneca Village, 120

sequoias, 193

Serres, Michel, 408n97

sexism, 76

Shakers, 63

Shakespeare, William, The Merchant of Venice, 337

Shaler, Nathaniel Southgate, 263

Shaw, Robert Gould, 194

Shepard, Norton C., 152

Sherman, William Tecumseh, 191, 212

shipwrecks, 82–85, 118–19

Sibley, Henry, 189

Sierra Club, 84, 334

Silicon Valley, 221, 238–41, 270

Simms, William Gilmore, 317–18; Atalantis: A Story of the Sea, 317–18; “The City of the Silent,” 57

Sims, Thomas, 86

Single Tax, 225–26, 236, 275, 290, 292, 303, 333

Sioux Indians, 189, 217, 287, 297

Six Nations of the Iroquois Confederacy, 44, 106

slavery, 38, 55, 75, 86, 107, 145, 151, 153, 187, 196, 289, 305, 317–18, 329, 452n58; rebellions, 318

Sleepy Hollow Cemetery, Concord, Massachusetts, 61, 72–73, 94, 96, 119, 171, 172, 194, 218, 242, 243, 258; design of, 73, 94, 119, 242, 243, 258

Sleepy Hollow Cemetery, Tarrytown, New York, 96, 106–7, 409n1

Sloane, David Charles, 430n103

smallpox, 82

Smith, B. F., Washington, D.C., with Projected Improvements, 117, 117

Smith, Henry Nash, 378n15

Smithsonian Institution, 117, 119, 267, 306, 443n38

Social Darwinism, 329, 445n53

socialism, 327

socioeconomics, 29, 228; of George, 225–36, 274–81

soil, 86, 148, 214

Soldiers’ Homes, 199–200, 200, 201, 202, 264

Solnit, Rebecca, 348, 355

South: agriculture, 235; Civil War, 148–57, 160, 161, 187, 245–46; Reconstruction, 193, 196; slavery, 318. See also specific cities and states

South Dakota, 294

Southern Utes, 297

Spanish-American War, 337

specialness, 9–10

Spencer, Herbert, 445n53

Spotswood, Alexander, 151, 432n117

spring, 165

Spring Grove Cemetery, Cincinnati, 59

Stanford, Leland, 231, 233, 234

Stanford University, 238, 240, 360

Staples, Sam, 94

Starr, Frederick, Jr., 160; American Forests; Their Destruction and Preservation, 158–59

steamboats, 86, 115, 199; wrecks, 118–19

steel, 87

Stegner, Wallace: Angle of Repose, 383n2; “Letter, Much Too Late,” 359–60

Stiles, Burritt, 139, 198, 431n105

St. Louis, 57, 59, 60, 192, 261

Stone, B. G., View of Samsonville Tannery, Olive Township, Ulster County, New York, 99, 99

Stonehenge, 2, 311, 450n32

Story, Joseph, 21–22, 23, 24, 25, 28, 30, 33, 46–48, 55

St. Paul, 259, 303, 306, 334, 441n20; park system, 259–61, 261, 262–68

Strauch, Adolph, 399n154

stroke, 182, 280, 324

stumps, 122, 137–209, 214; Battle of the Wilderness, 148–57; Civil War amputees, 138, 139, 140–41, 144–45, 153, 155, 191, 195, 198, 198, 199, 420n2, 431n105; of Cole, 122–28, 136; tree, 122–23, 126, 128, 136, 137–38, 139, 141, 142, 143–44, 151, 155

sublime, 2, 3, 4, 8, 9, 16, 26, 49, 50, 52, 125, 148, 188, 189, 191, 193, 239, 296, 376n9, 377n10

suburbs, 5, 11, 15, 23, 64, 67, 97, 105, 107, 112, 216, 218, 227, 237, 269, 271, 286, 304, 309, 352–53, 355, 408n93; Downing’s influence on, 115–16; early, 5; Irving Park, 107, 115; Irvington, 116; Llewellyn Park, 102–3, 103; postbellum, 227, 241–42, 436n56

suicide, 2, 375n3

Sullivan, Charles, Great Mound at Marietta, Ohio, 51, 51

Sullivan, John, 44–45, 46

summer, 70

Sumner, Charles, 33

Sunnyside, 106

Supreme Court, U.S., 47

surveying, 35, 43, 157

sustainability, 355, 360

Swan Point Cemetery, Providence, 257

Tall, Deborah, 309–13, 315–16; death of, 316; A Family of Strangers, 313; From Where We Stand: Recovering a Sense of Place, 309–13, 316

tanneries, 99, 99, 100, 129, 156, 410n6, 411n9

Tarrytown, New York, 96, 106–7, 246

taxation, 226, 288, 392n77; Single Tax, 225–26, 236, 275, 290, 292, 303, 333

technology, 20, 74, 107–8, 111, 143–44, 312, 320, 388n23; artificial limbs, 199–200; high-tech industry, 238; postbellum, 199, 320; printing, 104, 121

telegraph, 292

telephone, 320

tenant farming, 99, 101

tenements, 227, 266, 269, 354

Texas, 48

Thaddeus, Jan, 165, 175, 178, 180, 182–83; Lot’s Wife, 182, “A Thought of Marigolds,” 182–83

Theocritus, 379n17

Thoreau, Henry David, 5, 20, 32, 35, 40, 41, 65, 71, 72, 81–82, 83–95, 96, 111, 114, 127, 167, 170, 171, 177, 213, 256, 295, 378n15, 388n23, 393n93, 400n165, 406n70, 407n81, 408n93; Arcadianism and, 83–95; “Autumnal Tints,” 94–95, 400n165; death and grave of, 94–95, 171; death of his brother, 89–90, 93; on Indians, 93–94; on nature and death, 83–95; Walden, 60, 90, 119; at Walden Pond, 5, 71, 87, 89, 91, 93; “Walking,” 84–89; A Week on the Concord and Merrimack Rivers, 60, 82, 93–94; West and, 84–89

time, 383n1, 396n120

tobacco, 187

Toronto, 223, 270

tourism, 54–57, 60, 74, 265; Mount Auburn, 54–57

Transcendentalism, 22, 74, 75–76, 81, 243

transportation, 108, 109

travel, 5, 12, 77, 82, 283, 320; Fuller’s writing on, 77–84. See also West

trees, 9, 44, 80, 100, 136, 156–61, 171, 215, 248, 249, 394n102; autumn, 69–70; Battle of the Wilderness, 148–57; blazes cut into witness trees, 157; in children’s books, 156–57, 424n32; Civil War and, 148–61, 423n20; concern for, 157–61, 306; disease, 39; fruit, 39–45, 71–72, 112–13, 115, 366–68; Mount Auburn, 27, 39–42; Progressive Era, 333–36, 350; Redbud Woods conflict, 8–13, 312, 355; reforestation, 39, 306; stumps, 122–23, 126, 128, 136, 137–38, 139, 141, 142, 143–44, 151, 155; Whitman and, 168–69. See also deforestation; specific trees

Tuan, Yi-Fu, 309, 394n96

Turner, Frederick Jackson, 213; Frontier Thesis, 277

Turner, Nat, 318

Twenty-third Psalm, 131

Twin Cities, 174, 259–69, 442n23; park system, 259–60, 260, 261, 261, 262, 262, 263–68, 289

unemployment, 228

Unitarians, 22, 37, 49, 57

United Labor Party, 279

United Nations World Commission on Environment and Development, 360

unity, 317, 449n20

Universalists, 22

University of Chicago, 294, 298

University of Delaware, 314, 338

University of Toronto, 270

Upton, Dell, 387n22, 389n36

urbanization, 6, 24, 27, 29, 37, 64, 109, 227, 387n22; postbellum, 227, 241, 246–51, 259–70, 295, 354, 432n3; twentieth century, 351, 352, 353, 354–56

urban planning, 5, 35, 64; antebellum, 104–5, 117–20; Central Park model, 119–21, 191, 248; of Cleveland, 242–51, 257–70; Downing’s influence on, 115–21; of Olmsted, 120, 191, 242, 263, 438n79, 441n 18; parks, 64, 104–5, 117, 118–21, 242, 244, 248–50, 259–67, 379n15, 403n29, 438n79, 441n18, 444n42; postbellum, 242–51, 259–70, 354; twentieth century, 354–56; in West, 246–51, 259–70. See also specific cities

utopias, 3, 64, 88, 97, 243, 312; Atlantis, 300–307, 316–21, 328–36; Brook Farm, 63–64, 65, 66–71; in late-nineteenth-century literature, 301–7, 326–33; Oneida, 101–2, 113

Vaux, Calvert, 102, 119, 242, 416n54, 436n56; Central Park design, 120

veterans, 138; Civil War, 138–41, 162–63, 163, 164, 194–201, 211–12, 228, 231, 264

Victor, Mrs. Francis Fuller, Atlantis Arisen; or, Talks of a Tourist about Oregon and Washington, 319

Virgil, 379n17

Virginia, 150, 157, 158, 159, 172, 173, 199, 202, 206; Battle of the Wilderness, 148–57, 190, 202–3, 208, 305, 420n1, 423n20, 324n29, 446n69; Peninsular Campaign, 191

Wadsworth, Alexander, 43, 171; Plan of Mount Auburn, 33, 34

Walden Pond, 5, 61, 71, 87, 89, 91, 93, 171, 400n165

Walker, Stephen Duncan, Rural Cemetery and Public Walk, 57–58

Wall-E (film), 308

Walter, Cornelia, Rural Cemeteries of America, 121

Waltham, Massachusetts, 30, 56

Ward, Anna, 75

Waring, George, Jr., 263

Washington, D.C., 111, 117, 117, 118, 166, 173, 181, 188, 220, 222

Washington, George, 44, 54, 150, 156, 157, 355

waterfalls, 1–4, 16–17, 74, 78, 96, 102, 104, 123, 134, 135, 148, 188, 192, 264, 312, 442n27, 444n42

water-lily, 38

Watertown, Massachusetts, 30, 56

Watkins Glen State Park, 322–23

Waud, Alfred, “Wounded Escaping from the Burning Woods of the Wilderness,” 149, 149, 422n17

Wawatam, 93

Weaver, James, 293

Weidenmann, Jacob, 263

Wells, David, 321

West, 24–25, 73–74, 84, 187–94, 378n15, 427n75; Badlands, 158, 159; Civil War, 187, 194; Fuller and, 74, 75–80; Garland and, 211–19, 288, 293–98; middle border, 210–51; Olmsted and, 190–94, 210, 233; painting of, 188–89, 189, 190, 190, 191, 210, 427n79; postbellum, 87–89, 187, 188, 194, 210–51, 252–99; postwar migration, 87–89, 187, 188, 194, 211–19, 241, 247–48, 296; Thoreau and, 84–89; twentieth century, 351–52; urban development, 246–51, 259–70. See also specific cities and states

West Rock Park, New Haven, 363–65

West Salem, Wisconsin, 294–96

wheat, 162, 163, 164, 214, 215, 216, 230, 235, 237

Whigs, 22, 55, 386n15, 390n49

White, Andrew Dickson, 429n96

White Mountains, 125–27

Whitman, Walt, 20, 65, 140, 164–72, 179, 201–2, 211, 289–90, 351, 353, 426n54; Arcadianism and, 140–41, 144–45, 164–72, 189, 332–33; Civil War and, 140–41, 144–45, 153–54, 157, 162, 165–71, 290; death of, 333; Emerson and, 170–72; later years of, 333; Leaves of Grass, 166, 167, 171, 332; Memoranda During the War, 141, 166; November Boughs, 290; Specimen Days, 165–71, 183, 218, 290, 434n18; “This Compost,” 332

Wilder, Laura Ingalls, 351–52; “Little House” books, 351–52

Wilder, Marshall P., 119

wilderness, 3, 24–25, 74, 152, 360, 376n9; antebellum views on, 24–61, 75–80, 84–95, 96–136, 378n15; Civil War and, 138–209; Hudson River valley, 152; Olmsted and, 190–94, 210; Progressive Era, 333–36, 350. See also frontier; nature; West

Wilderness (Virginia), 140, 172, 202–3, 207–9, 432n117; Battle of, 140, 148–49, 149, 150–54, 154, 155–57, 190, 202–3, 208, 305, 420n1, 423n20, 423n29, 446n 69; battlefield protection, 202–3; second growth, 151

Wilderness Battlefield Coalition, 202

wilderness preservation, 8–17, 190–94; postbellum, 190–94, 210; Progressive Era, 333–36, 350; Redbuds Wood conflict, 8–13, 312, 355; Yosemite, 190–94. See also environmentalism; national parks; specific sites

Wild West, 188, 194, 296, 378n15

Wilgus, J. M., Map of the City of Ithaca, 13, 14

Willey, Samuel, 126–27

Williams, Raymond, 29

Willis, Nathaniel P., 97, 109, 412n19, 413n28; American Scenery, 105, 121; Out-Doors at Idlewild, 96; Rural Letters, 109

Winik, Marion, The Glen Rock Book of the Dead, 349–50

Wisconsin, 199, 211–13, 214, 217, 293, 294–96, 339, 351

Wolf Ridge Environmental Learning Center, 91, 92, 131, 263

wolves, 92, 174, 215

women, 74, 75, 249, 290; frontier, 77–78, 216, 219, 405nn45–46; Indian, 81, 414n31; rights of, 22, 64, 74, 75, 290, 312, 414n30

Wood, Grant, 356–59, 458n34; American Gothic, 356–57, 357, 358–59

woodpecker, 172, 174, 175, 177, 178, 181, 182, 186, 208, 209

Wordsworth, William, 36, 79, 81, 377n10

World’s Columbian Exposition, 294

World War I, 296, 351

Worldwatch Institute, 11, 220

Wounded Knee, massacre at, 295

Wyoming, 190

Yale University, 241, 253, 254, 257, 271, 314

Yellow Belle-Fleur, 41

yellow fever, 20

Yiddish, 285, 338

Yom Kippur, 92, 253, 325

Yosemite, 3, 24–25, 190, 190, 191–94, 202

Zola, Émile, 284

zucchini, 41

Previous chapter

Base text size -

Chapter images ()