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Jennifer A. Pruitt
Description: Building the Caliphate: Construction, Destruction, and Sectarian Identity in Early...
Building the Caliphate: Construction, Destruction, and Sectarian Identity in Early Fatimid Architecture
Index
Author
Jennifer A. Pruitt
PublisherYale University Press
Copyright© 2020 by Jennifer A. Pruitt
Stable URL: https://aaeportal.com/?id=-21436
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Index
Names starting with “al-” are alphabetized by the subsequent part of the name.
Abbasid caliphate: Abu Rakwa and, 120
beveled and ornamental style of, 40, 41, 51, 103
Buyids and, 115, 156
Carolingians and, 107, 173n38
Christians and, 58, 175n89
Companions of the Prophet Muhammad, cursing of, 156, 171n72
compared to Fatimid caliphate, 5, 116–17, 156
in decline, 6, 122
defeat of Umayyad caliphate (750), 134
“false Imams” of, 115
al-Hakim’s increasing popularity in, 123–24
Hanafism of, 161n16
Jerusalem (731–973) and, 134–36, 143, 151
luster bowl, 18, 18
al-Mahdi declaring rival caliphate to, 15
minaret as part of mosques in, 16, 23, 102
origins of, 161n16
palace of, 37, 51
visual expressions of legitimacy, 3, 4, 23. See also Baghdad; Samarra
ʿAbd al-Malik, 136, 140
ʿAbd al-Rahman III (r. 929–61), 4, 6, 20–22, 102, 161n9, 161n16
Abu Rakwa claiming to be heir to, 90
Abraham (Coptic patriarch r. 975–78), 66
Abraham’s ascent narratives, 178n78
Abu Bakr, 90, 96
Abu al-Futuh, 97
Abu al-Makarim Saʿdallah Jirjis ibn Masʿud, 57–59, 175n9
Abu al-Qasim Husaini, 142
Abu Rakwa revolt (1004–7), 71, 90–92, 96, 120, 123, 155, 171nn75–76
Abu Salih, 111–13, 174nn57–58
Aghlabids, 15, 102, 162n8
al-Akhram, 127, 129
Aleppo (Syria), 6, 44, 67, 178n85
Alexandria (Egypt), 49, 91, 103, 163n35
Alexandrin, Elizabeth, 149, 178n76, 178n78
ʿAli (cousin and son-in-law of the Prophet Muhammad), 4, 8, 15, 81, 84, 90, 93, 161n16, 162n16
ʿAli al-Asadi, 123
ʿAlids, 26–27, 84, 93, 97, 102, 124
ʿAli ibn ʿAbd al-Rahman, 142
Almoravids and Almohads, 158
Amir-Moezzi, 178n79
Anba Abraham (Coptic patriarch), 59
Anba Ephraim (Syrian patriarch), 62
al-Andalus, 14, 21, 36, 37, 38, 90, 161n16
Aqsa Mosque (Jerusalem), 126, 128, 133, 133–49, 135, 138, 176n34
archways, 138–39, 140–42
compared to Church of the Holy Sepulcher, 148
Fatimid design of concentric circles in, 143, 147, 148–49
fire (1967), 179n12
inscriptions, 142–43, 149
isrāʾ (night journey) and miʿrāj (ascension) of Muhammad associated with, 139–42, 144, 146–49, 178n76
maqṣūra, 138–39, 139, 140–43, 142–43, 145, 146–49, 177n57
mosaics, 140–43, 148, 178n79
roundels, use of, 142–43, 145, 147–48, 178n72, 178n75
sanctification of, 127–28
trompe l’oeil effect, 143, 147
al-Zahir’s renovation, 140–49, 141
Arculf (late seventh-century bishop), 106–7, 108
al-Ashmunayn, destruction of church in, 112
astronomy and observatory, 69, 105, 170n59
ʿAysha (Muhammad’s wife), 90
Ayyubids, 164n74, 165n79
al-ʿAziz Biʾllah (r. 975–96), 27–28
Cairo and, 45, 69
Christian churches and their destruction under, 47, 66, 67, 106
Christians’ relationship with, 47, 58, 59, 64–65, 67, 69, 110, 111, 153
compared to al-Hakim, 69, 90, 123, 154
construction of Mosque of al-Hakim begun under, 30–32, 73
death of, 70
expansion goals of, 44
Fatimid palace and, 37
Jerusalem and, 133
Melkite Christian wife of, 50, 110
monuments built under, 44
Muqattam miracle and, 62
Babylon (Egypt), 49, 163n35
Badr al-Jamali, 98, 99
Baghdad, 6, 15, 19, 23, 123, 156, 163n22
as Abbasid capital, 87, 125, 134
Baghdad Manifesto (1011), 124
Banu Qurra, 90–91, 96, 171n79
Banu Tayy, 177n43
Barjawan, 71, 169n5
Basil II (Byzantine emperor r. 976–1025), 97
bāṭin vs. ẓāhir: Druze views on, 129
Fatimid palace in terms of, 42–45
Fatimid vs. Sunni views on, 5–6, 114
al-Hakim’s realignment from bāṭin to ẓāhir, 95, 116–17, 124, 155–56
interpretative flexibility of bāṭin beliefs, 50
Ismaili-specific views on, 14, 102, 154
jihad over interpretations of, 21
al-Kirmani on, 114–15
minarets of the Mosque of al-Hakim, interpretation of, 81–83
Baybars II (Mamluk ruler r. 1309–10), 99
Behrens-Abouseif, Doris, 170n43
Ben Ezra Synagogue (Cairo), 49, 162n26
Berbers, 15, 27, 91, 122, 129, 171n79, 173n40
Bible citation: Isaiah 1:3, 61
Matthew 17:20, 59
Bierman, Irene, 44, 81–82, 102, 161n10, 162n18, 164n54, 170nn38–39, 170n41, 172n13
Bimin (monk), 131
Bloom, Jonathan, 28, 81, 102, 162n16, 163n22, 163n39, 164n66, 169n3, 170n54, 172n8, 172n13
Bohra Ismaili, 33, 34
al-Buraq (sacred steed of Muhammad), 146, 147
Butler, Alfred, 63, 65
Buyids, 6, 115, 117, 124, 154, 156
Byzantine empire, 4, 21, 27, 48, 67
closing Mosque of Constantinople, 111
Fatimid peace treaties with, 122, 136, 150, 178n85
Fatimids engaged in campaigns against, 71, 96, 109, 117
protection of Church of the Holy Sepulcher in Jerusalem, 106
relations with Fatimids at time of destruction of Church of the Holy Sepulcher, 111
restoration of Church of the Holy Sepulcher by, 139–40, 150, 178n81
Cairo: as capital, 1, 3, 10, 13–14, 24, 27, 45, 87, 105, 125, 153, 154, 156
as center of learning under al-Hakim, 87, 92, 105, 154
city gates, 20, 26
destruction by al-Hakim, 11
differentiated from al-Qahira, 161n2
al-Hakim’s attachment to, 69, 71–72, 92, 103
map of, 25
origin as army camp, 24, 164n55
Saffron Tombs (turbat al-zaʿfarān), 27, 36, 44
societal hierarchy in relationship to knowledge of, 44
walls of, 99
al-Zahir and, 133. See also Fatimid palace (al-Qahira); Fustat-Misr; Mosque of al-Hakim; and other specific monuments
call to prayer, 16, 24, 29, 96, 114, 120, 162, 169n3
Charlemagne (r. 742–814), 107, 173n38, 173n50
Christian churches and monuments, 7, 10, 47–67
Christian funding for upkeep of monuments in Jerusalem, 108
church restoration, 48, 58, 66–67
Ibn Raga’s construction of church dedicated to St. Michael, 88
monasteries, 55–58, 88
monuments in Fatimid Egypt, 55–59
Muqattam miracle, 59–66, 62
Muslim resistance to and obstacles to church restoration and construction, 10, 65–66, 88–89, 154, 171n70
reconstruction or building under al-Hakim, 88–89, 92, 131
shared artistic forms with Fatimid Egypt, 51–55
sources on, 7, 9
woodwork, 52–53
al-Zahir’s restoration of Christian Jerusalem, 150–51. See also Church of the Holy Sepulcher; destruction of Christian churches and monuments; specific churches, monasteries, and shrines
Christians: Arabicization of, 65
al-ʿAziz’s relationship with, 47, 58, 59, 64–65, 67, 69, 110, 153
celebrations by, 56, 109, 119
conversion to Islam, 113, 131
corruption in church practices, 111, 173n52, 174n54
Fatimid tolerance of, 10, 24, 47, 48, 51, 64–65, 71
al-Hakim’s relationship with, 3, 88–90, 119, 125, 131, 154, 172–73n34
in Jerusalem, 108–9
al-Muʿizz’s relationship with, 58–59, 67, 69, 153
relations among Muslims, Jews, and Christians, 4, 7, 51, 56, 64, 162n26
return to faith of those who had converted to Islam, 131
violence against, 108–9. See also Byzantine empire; Coptic Christianity; dhimmīs; Pact of ʿUmar
Church of al-ʿAdhraʾ (Wadi al-Natrun monastic complex), decorative stucco from, 51, 51
Church of Saint Barbara (Cairo), wooden screen, 52-53
Church of Saint George (Madaba, Jordan), mosaic from, 106, 108
Church of Saint Mennas (al-Hamra), 112
Church of Saint Mercurius (Monastery of Abu Sayfayn), 59, 60, 62–64
Church of Saint Theodore, 112
Church of the Holy Sepulcher (Jerusalem): aedicula and dome, 106, 107
Arculf’s schematic of, 106–7, 108
centrality in struggle for dominance in Jerusalem of Islam vs. Christianity, 109
Charlemagne and, 173n38, 173n50
compared to Aqsa Mosque, 148
destruction of, 1, 11, 69, 96–97, 106–13, 120, 123, 151, 154, 155, 172n34, 173n47, 174n53
ivory of three Marys at tomb of Christ, 106, 107
medieval nomenclature of “the Garbage Heap” for, 110, 173n49
mob violence damaging (966), 109
mosaic depictions of, 106, 108
mosque constructed on top of section of, 173n44
Muslim reaction to destruction of, 110
pilgrimages to, 109, 119, 178n81
protection under treaty with Byzantine empire, 106
ramifications of destruction of, 1, 151, 158
al-Zahir allowing Byzantine restoration of, 127, 136–37, 139–40, 150–51, 177n37, 178n81
Companions of the Prophet Muhammad, curses on: Abbasid and Baghdad mosques displaying, 156, 171n72
Abu Rakwa using to rally revolt against al-Hakim, 90, 171n78
al-Hakim ordering inscriptions, 70, 89–92, 154, 171n71
al-Hakim ordering removal of curses, 96, 120, 155
concentric circle designs, use of, 81–82, 84, 93, 143
Constantine VIII (Byzantine emperor r. 1025–28), 150
Constantine IX Monomachos (Byzantine emperor r. 1042–55), 150
Constantinople mosque, 111, 150
Cook, Michael, 116–17
Coptic Christianity: celebrations, 56
destruction of Church of the Holy Sepulcher and, 110, 111
Fatimids and, 9, 48–50, 58
luster ceramic bowl, 46, 54
Monophysite belief system, 48, 110, 173n51
in al-Qahira, 24
Cordoba: Great Mosque of, 21–23, 102, 121–22, 177n51
Madinat al-Zahraʾ, 20, 21, 162n21, 164n57
as Umayyad capital, 87, 125. See also Umayyads (Cordoba)
Council of Chalcedon (451), 48, 111, 173n51
Creswell, K. A. C.: on Aqsa Mosque, 141, 178n63
on Mausoleum of Badr al-Jamali, 169n22
on minarets of Mosque of al-Hakim, 73, 74, 169n23, 169n30
on Mosque of al-Azhar, 29–30, 164n67
on Mosque of al-Hakim, 33, 33
on Mosque of al-Luʾluʾa (“the Pearl”), 130, 130
on al-Qahira, 163n39
on Qarafa cemetery ruins, 172n7
on renovation of minarets of Mosque of al-Hakim, 99
on staircases and space between minaret and bastion, 100
Crone, Patricia, 5, 161n8
Crusades, 1, 4, 11, 40, 157–58
Damascus: Abbasids moving capital to Baghdad from, 134
under Fatimid control, 109
minarets of mosque of, 73, 81
dār al-ʿilm (house of knowledge) established by al-Hakim, 86–87, 92, 95, 96, 101, 103, 105, 120, 154, 155, 170n59
daʿwa. See Ismaili Shiʿism
den Heijer, Johannes, 56
destruction of Christian churches and monuments: under al-Hakim, 10–11, 89, 96, 101, 105–13, 112–13, 117, 123, 125, 131, 155, 171n70
under al-Mansur, 121–22
under al-Muʿizz and al-ʿAziz, 67, 106
under al-Mutawakkil, 175n89
under al-Zahir, 150. See also Church of the Holy Sepulcher
dhimmīs: al-Hakim’s treatment of, 70, 87–89, 95, 118–20, 127, 131, 155, 171n73, 172–73n34
muḥtasibs (Islamic market inspectors), role of, 118–19, 155, 175n79
al-Muʿizz and al-ʿAziz’s tolerance of, 47–51, 64–65, 67, 69, 110, 153
as “People of the Book,” 7, 48
restrictions and dress codes imposed on, 56, 90, 117–19, 131
al-Zahir’s treatment of, 132. See also Christians; interfaith relations among Muslims, Jews, and Christians; Jews
Dome of Gabriel (Jerusalem), 147
Dome of the Prophet (Jerusalem), 147, 147
Dome of the Rock (Jerusalem), 128, 132, 133–36, 137, 140–41, 144–47, 146, 148, 173n36, 176n34, 177n41, 177n56, 178n70
Druze: contemporary configuration of, 175n5
five-pointed star adopted by, 93
al-Hakim’s divinity and, 69–70, 127, 128
rise of, 11, 128–31, 156
al-Zahir’s attempts to counter heresy of, 127, 132, 140, 149
Durzan (mother of al-ʿAziz), 44, 130
Fadl ibn Salih, 66–67, 91
Fahd ibn Ibrahim, 71, 88
Fakhr al-Mulk, 115, 124
Fatima (daughter of Muhammad), 4, 20, 81
Fatimid caliphate: architectural sources for, 3, 7–9, 162n25
caliph’s role, 5
ceremonies, importance of, 32, 37, 121, 164n71
dynasty as descendants from Muhammad, 84–86
economy of, 91, 164n50
as golden age, 1, 47, 51, 64–65, 156, 157
history, 3–6
Imam’s role and presence, 5–6, 14, 18–20, 23, 27, 44, 86, 115–16, 153, 161n17, 163n26
al-Kirmani on, 114
Maghreb period, 14–23
map of, 2
origins of, 14
rival caliphates, 4–6, 115
as Seveners, 161n17
turmoil at end of al-Hakim’s reign, 128–29
visual expressions of legitimacy, 3, 4, 23, 151, 157. See also Ismaili Shiʿism; specific rulers
Fatimid palace (al-Mahdiyya), 13, 16–19
Fatimid palace (al-Mansuriyya), 19–20
Fatimid palace (al-Qahira), 9, 36–45
administration outside walls of, 44
carved wooden beams, 38–40, 53, 165n86
construction of, 44, 45, 165n76
demise of, 165n79
eastern and western sections, 37, 162n14
Hugh of Caesaria describing, 40–42
majālis al-ḥikma (Sessions of Wisdom) at, 42, 83, 103, 128, 153, 174n61
Nasir-i Khusraw’s description of, 37–38, 165n84
poets celebrating importance of, 13, 42
restorations under al-Mustansir, 37
societal hierarchy in relationship to, 44, 45
walls and gates, 37–38
watchmen and other workers at, 37, 40–41
Flood, Finbarr, 158
Flury, Samuel, 172n8
Fulcher, Geoffrey, 40–41
Fustat-Misr, 8, 24–32
anti-Sunni messages from al-Hakim in, 154
Ben Ezra Synagogue, 49, 162n26
burning of (1020), 69, 129
ceremonial merging with al-Qahira, 121
Christian churches in, 56
Christians in, 49, 55, 88
al-Hakim’s rule of, 103
intermingling of religions in, 58, 95
Jews in, 49
map of, 25
ritual processions in, 32, 121. See also Mosque of ʿAmr; Mosque of Ibn Tulun
Geniza documents, 49, 88, 162n26, 179n6
al-Ghazali, 119–20
Goitein, Shelomo Dov, 179n6
Grabar, Oleg, 147, 176nn26–27, 176n30, 177n41, 177n49
Great Palace. See Fatimid palace (al-Qahira)
grilled windows, 83, 83–84, 85
al-Hafiz (Fatimid Imam-caliph r. 1130–49), 29
al-Hakam II (Andalusi Umayyad caliph r. 961–76), 21, 161n16, 175n88
al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah (Fatimid Imam-caliph r. 996–1021): architectural program of early years of, 70–72, 92, 154
architectural program of final years of, 127, 156
architectural program of middle years of, 95, 113, 120–25, 155
born in Cairo (985), 69, 71
childhood name of al-Mansur, 70–71
Christian mother of, 50, 110
Christians, relationship with, 3, 88–90, 119, 125, 131, 154, 172–73n34
as “Commander of the Faithful,” 117
compared to al-Mansur (ruler of al-Andalus r. 978–1002), 122
compared to al-Muʿizz and al-ʿAziz, 69, 90, 123, 154
death/ disappearance of (1021), 132, 149, 176n18
divinity of, 69–70, 127, 128, 129, 149
endowments of, 102–3, 105, 117, 120, 125, 155
extent of kingdom of, 103, 123
final years of (1017–21), 127–28
glorified use of his name, 84, 149, 170n46
ideological propaganda program and popularity of, 113, 115–16, 123, 175n91
known as “mad” Egyptian caliph, 1, 3, 10, 69, 110, 121, 154, 158
medieval scholars’ opinions on reign of, 176n17
middle years of (1007–13), 96–97
most notable events associated with, 69, 92, 121, 154
patronage of, 70, 87, 96, 105, 117, 125
religious changes during his reign, 95–96, 101, 102, 115–16, 119, 120, 124–25, 128, 131, 154–56, 174n61, 176n15
violence and cruelty of, 69, 71, 169n9. See also dār al-ʿilm; destruction of Christian churches and monuments; minarets of Mosque of al-Hakim; Mosque of al-Hakim; Mosque of al-Maqs; Mosque of Rashida
Halm, Heinz, 170n59
Hamdanids, 6
Hamilton, Robert, 135, 177n46
Hanafism, 161n16
Hanging Church (al-Muʿallaqa) (Cairo), 59, 60, 61, 62
Haram al-Sharif (Jerusalem), 127–28, 128, 133–40, 146, 150–51
Nasir-i Khusraw’s description of, 144–45. See also Aqsa Mosque; Dome of the Rock
Harun al-Rashid (Abbasid caliph r. 786–809), 107, 173n38
al-Hasan ibn Bishr al-Dimashqi, 66
Hasanids, 24
Helena (Byzantine empress r. 325–30), 106
Herz, Max, 100
Hilal al-Sabiʾ, 109, 172n34
ḥisba manuals, 118–20
The History of the Patriarchs of the Egyptian Church (multiple authors), 9, 56–58, 60, 63, 66, 110–11, 113, 131, 132, 172n34, 173n45
Holy Sepulcher. See Church of the Holy Sepulcher
Hugh of Caesaria, 40–41, 162n1
Husayn (grandson of Muhammad), 4
Husaynids, 24
Ibn al-Athir, 66
Ibn al-Haytham, 105
Ibn Aybak, 164n68
Ibn Duqmaq, 28
Ibn Haniʾ, 20
Ibn Hayyan, 122
Ibn ʿIdhari, 13, 17–18, 19, 121–22
Ibn Ilyas (cousin of al-Hakim), 129, 132, 149, 156
Ibn al-Jarrah, 96–97
Ibn Khallikan, 176n17
Ibn Killis, 164n68
Ibn al-Qalanisi, 110
Ibn Raga’s conversion to Christianity, 88, 113
Ibn Taghribirdi, 176n17
ibn Yunis, ʿAli ibn ʿAbd al-Rahman, 105
Idrisids, 6
Ikhshidids, 24, 27, 58, 136, 173n40, 177n40
image destruction: al-Hakim as “image breaker,” 158, 179n11
Muslims using to provoke destruction of churches, 123
Protestant Reformation and, 179n11
Institute of Ismaili Studies, 8–9, 174n62
interfaith relations among Muslims, Jews, and Christians, 4, 7, 51, 56, 64, 162n26
apogee in tenth to thirteenth centuries, 1, 179n6
comparing premodern with modern Islam’s position, 179n7
in Crusades period, 157–58, 179n6
mingling of shared art forms between Islam and Christianity and between Islam and Judaism, 51, 57–58. See also dhimmīs
international trade, 5, 26, 49, 162n26, 164n50
Iraq. See Abbasid caliphate ʿIsa ibn Nasturus, 48, 67
Ismaʿil b. Jaʿfar al-Sadiq, 4
Ismaili Shiʿism of Fatimids: Baghdad Manifesto against, 124
calling themselves “People of Truth,” 6
daʿwa (mission) and dāʿīs (missionaries), 5–6, 14, 43, 45, 81, 86, 113, 115, 128, 129, 155, 170n50, 174n61
Druze and, 129
early schism in, 162n6
Ismailization efforts of al-Hakim, 90, 92, 93
isrāʾ and miʿrāj story’s interpretation by, 149
meaning of Fatimid architecture for, 9, 14, 42–45, 81–83, 153, 154, 159
Nasir-i Khusraw’s conversion to, 165n80
oath of secrecy required in, 43
in al-Qahira, 29
relationship with and differences from Sunni
majority, 1, 4–6, 8, 24, 28–29, 50, 67, 175n95
revelation of hidden truths, 43–44, 82, 83
sources on, 7–8
symbolism of, 1, 10, 42, 70, 81–84, 93, 170n35, 178n75
taʾwīl (allegorical interpretation) in, 5, 43, 81–82, 86, 93, 97, 101, 114, 124, 154
turmoil at end of al-Hakim’s reign, 128–29. See also bāṭin vs. ẓāhir; Fatimid caliphate
al-Istakhri, 124
Jarrahid revolt (1010), 71, 96–97, 102, 172n13
Jawhar (Fatimid general), 23–29, 36–37, 50–51, 58, 96, 103, 163n39
Jerusalem: Abbasid control of (751–973), 107, 134–36
Charlemagne and Carolingian investment in, 107, 173n38
Crusades and, 157
destruction as defining act of identity of, 179n12
earthquake damage in, 134, 135, 150
under Fatimid control, 3, 4, 106, 136–40, 144–45, 151
al-Hakim allowing church reconstruction, 131
ideological reasons for al-Zahir’s choosing to restore, 127, 132, 140, 149, 156, 158
Ikhshidids and, 136
Islamic ascension story and change in meaning of city to Fatimids, 140, 176n27
Jarrahid revolt threatening Fatimid power in, 97
minarets of mosque of, 73, 81
Muslim grassroots efforts to restore and embellish the city, 134–36, 151
Nasir-i Khusraw’s description of, 37, 165n80
as pilgrimage destination, 109, 119, 144, 145, 177n56, 178n81
al-Qadi al-Nuʿman on praying in mosque of, 81
religious strife in tenth century in, 108–9
Umayyads and, 134, 136, 139, 143
al-Zahir’s restoration of, 11, 127, 133–34, 136–44, 150–51, 156–57. See also Aqsa Mosque; Church of the Holy Sepulcher; Dome of the Rock; Haram al-Sharif
Jews: conversion to Islam, 113
Copts and, 9
distinctive clothing, required to wear, 90, 119, 171n73
Fatimids and, 24, 48, 49–50
first and second temple in Jerusalem, 139, 179n12
Geniza documents and, 49, 88, 162n26
al-Hakim’s treatment of, 3, 90
in Jerusalem, 108
Karaites, 49–50
Muslim-Christian alliance at expense of, 65
Rabbanites, 49–50
relations among Muslims, Jews, and Christians, 4, 7, 51, 56, 64, 158, 162n26
al-Zahir’s treatment of, 132. See also dhimmīs
jizya (tax paid by non-Muslims), 7, 48
John I Tzimiskes (Byzantine emperor r. 969–76), 109
Kafur, 24, 173n40
Karaites, 49–50
Khamarawaih ibn Ahmad ibn Tulun, 57–58
Kharijites, 15, 16, 23, 102, 163n21
al-Kindi: Khiṭaṭ Miṣr (Districts of Egypt), 57
al-Kirmani, 9, 113–20, 123–25, 128–29, 155, 175n91
Lights to Illuminate the Proof of the Imamate, 115
Koerner, Joseph, 179n11
Kufic script, 35, 35, 75, 76, 77, 82, 100, 100, 103, 136, 169n25, 169n29
Kutubiyya Mosque (Marrakech), 163n27
light, significance of, 29, 83–84, 93, 124, 154, 170nn40–41, 177n53
Gothic use of light metaphor, 170n44
luster ceramics, 18, 18, 46, 53–55, 54–55
Madaba (Jordan) mosaic, 106, 108
Maghreb, 9
Fatimid cities in, 14–23
Fatimid rule over, 3, 15, 23
al-Hakim’s rule of, 103
Umayyad in rivalry for allegiance of, 6. See also al-Mahdiyya; al-Mansuriyya
al-Mahdi (Abbasid caliph r. 775–85), 134, 135, 140, 148, 176n36
al-Mahdi (Fatimid Imam-caliph r. 909–34), 4, 15, 27
al-Mahdiyya (Tunisia), 9, 14, 15, 23, 162n11
as Fatimid capital, 19
Great Mosque of, 16, 17, 73
map of, 16
marble relief with musician and seated ruler, 18, 18, 38
sacred royal city separate from urban areas in, 16–19, 163n48
Malik ibn Saʿid al-Fariqi, 103, 174n61
Maliki Sunnism, 15, 23, 161n16
Mamluks, 8, 24, 99, 158, 164n74
al-Maʾmun (Abbasid caliph r. 813–33), 135–36, 170n59, 177n37
al-Mansur (Abbasid caliph r. 754–75), 134–35, 176n30
al-Mansur (Fatimid Imam-caliph r. 946–53), 19, 23, 27
al-Mansur (ruler of al-Andalus r. 978–1002), 121–23, 175n88
al-Mansur Abu ʿAli. See al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah al-Mansuriyya (Egypt), 26–27
al-Mansuriyya (Tunisia), 9, 14, 19–20, 23–24, 29, 44, 162n21, 170n38
al-Maqqari, 122
al-Maqrizi, Taqi al-Din Ahmad b. ʿAli: on Cairo as seat of Fatimid caliphate, 27
on Christians and construction of churches, 56–58, 88–89, 171n70
on Church of the Holy Sepulcher, 109
on dār al-ʿilm (house of knowledge) construction, 87
on Fatimid palace hierarchy, 43–44
on al-Hakim providing religious objects to Cairo’s mosques, 105
on al-Hakim’s endowments, 103
on al-Hakim’s relationship with his subjects, 71
on al-Mansuriyya’s fortifications, 26
on Mecca kaaba decoration, 148
on Monastery of al-Qusayr’s destruction, 112
on Monastery of Saint John the Baptist, 174n58
on Mosque of al-Hakim, 32, 73, 97, 164–65n74
on Mosque of al-Luʾluʾa, 130
on Rashida mosque, 72
as source, 7, 8, 113, 165n76
on al-Zahir, 132–33
Marilhat, Prosper: Ruins of the Mosque of al-Hakim, 33
Mawhub ibn Mansur, 56
Mazyadids, 6
Mecca: counter-caliph to al-Hakim in, 71, 97
Fatimid control of, 4, 26–27, 163nn45–46
al-Hakim’s rule of, 103
Jarrahid revolt threatening Fatimid power in, 97, 102
kaaba in, 13, 148
minarets of mosque of, 73, 81
Nasir-i Khusraw’s description of, 37, 165n80
pilgrimage to, 27, 86, 97
al-Qadi al-Nuʿman on praying in mosque of, 81
Umayyads and, 6
Medina: Fatamid control of, 4, 26, 103
Jarrahid revolt threatening Fatimid power in, 102
minarets of mosque of, 73, 81
al-Nuʿman on praying in mosque of, 81
Melkite Christians, 9, 48–50, 57, 67, 89, 110, 111
memory devices, 82, 86, 125, 149, 178n74
Michael of Tinnis, 9, 56–57, 58, 59, 63–65, 71, 88, 110–11, 112, 174n54
minarets: Cordoban Umayyad use of, 21, 22, 23, 162n16
meaning of term “minaret,” 169n3
mosques with multiple minarets, 73, 81
style from ninth-century Baghdad, 102
in tenth century, Fatimids vs. Abbasids, 16, 23, 164n63
minarets of Mosque of al-Hakim, 10, 33, 93
covering of (bastions), 1, 11, 69, 94, 95, 96, 97–102, 98, 115–16, 120, 124, 130, 154, 155, 172n13
description of, 73–80, 169n23
grilled windows, 83, 83–84, 170n43
height of, 162n16
inclusion of al-Hakim’s name in, 113
inscriptions, 75, 76, 77, 80, 81, 84, 100, 100, 101, 155, 169n25, 170n45
meaning of choosing preservation instead of destruction of, 124–25
northern bastion, 98, 99
northern minaret, 75, 75–76, 83
oratory of western minaret, 68, 77, 80, 80, 93, 124, 156, 169n30, 171n83
restoration in medieval period, 164n74
scholarly interpretation of, 81–86
western bastion, 98, 99–100, 100
western minaret, 74, 77, 77–80, 98
minbars, 20–21, 23, 105, 179n12
Monastery of Khandaq (Cairo), 58
Monastery of al-Qusayr (Cairo), 57, 111–12, 131, 175n9
Monastery of Saint John the Baptist, 112, 174n58
mosaics: Aqsa Mosque, 140–43, 148, 177n49
Church of the Holy Sepulcher depicted in, 106, 108
Great Mosque of Cordoba, 21, 177n51
Haram al-Sharif gateway, 144, 145
Mecca kaaba, 148
Monastery of al-Qusayr’s depictions of Virgin Mary, 112
similarities between Haram al-Sharif and the Holy Sepulcher, 177n50
Mosque of ʿAmr (Cairo), 24, 30, 89, 92, 105, 119, 121
Mosque of al-Aqmar (Cairo), 29, 84, 85, 87, 130, 165n78, 178n80
Mosque of al-Azhar (Cairo), 9, 12, 30–31
compared to Mosque of al-Hakim, 35
construction of, 29–32, 44, 45, 101, 164n61, 164n68
endowment of, 96, 103, 120, 155
minaret and, 162n16
naming of, 19–20, 29
wooden doors donated by al-Hakim, 103–5, 104
Mosque of Constantinople, 111, 150
Mosque of Cordoba. See Cordoba
Mosque of al-Hakim (Cairo), 9, 10, 33–35, 103–5
Bohra restoration (1980), 33, 34, 164n74
built as al-Anwar mosque, 29, 32, 72–73, 92
compared to Mosque of al-Azhar and Mosque of Ibn Tulun, 35
concentric circle designs, use of, 81–82, 84, 93
connection to Fatimid palace, 32
construction and completion of, 32–35, 44, 45, 72, 73–86, 92–93, 105, 154
drawings of (by Creswell), 74–75, 77
floriated Kufic script, 35, 35, 75, 76, 77, 82, 100, 100, 103, 169n25, 169n29
al-Hakim praying at, 121
inscriptions, 35, 35–36, 73, 75, 76, 80, 81, 82, 84–85, 100, 101, 124, 172n8
minbar, 105
name of, 32
plan of, 34, 35
portals, 73, 93
post-Fatimid developments, 33
stone towers, 70
al-Zahir and, 133. See also minarets of Mosque of al-Hakim
Mosque of Ibn Tulun (Cairo), 24, 29, 30, 35, 35–36, 51, 100, 103, 105, 119
Mosque of al-Luʾluʾa (“the Pearl,” Cairo), 129–30, 130, 156
Mosque of al-Mahdiyya (Tunisia), 16, 17, 73
Mosque of al-Maqs (Cairo), 169n14
endowment of, 96, 101, 103, 106, 120, 155, 172n24
al-Hakim’s choice of location outside of al-Qahira, 72, 87, 92, 154
Mosque of Qarawiyyin (Fez, Morocco), 21
Mosque of Qayrawan (Tunisia), 16, 17, 99, 99, 102, 124
Mosque of Rashida (Cairo): built on site containing graves of Christians and Jews, 88, 105, 154
endowment of, 96, 101, 103, 106, 120, 155
al-Hakim praying at, 121
al-Hakim’s choice of location outside of al-Qahira, 72, 87, 92, 154
initial mud brick structure and subsequent reconstruction in stone, 72, 106, 124
lamps decorated with animals in, 172n24
Mosque of Sfax (Tunisia), 99, 99, 102, 124
Mosque of Sousse (Tunisia), 102
Mosque of Tunis (Tunisia), 102
Muʿawiya ibn Abi Sufyan, 90
Muhammad (prophet): Druze considering al-Hakim as superseding, 129
Fatimid caliphs as successors to, 4, 80
isrāʾ (night journey) and miʿrāj (ascension), 139–42, 144, 146–49, 177n56, 178n70
Mosque of al-Aqmar facade including name of, 84
Mosque of al-Hakim celebrating family of, 84
staff of, 32
muḥtasib. See ḥisba manuals
al-Muʿizz li-Din Allah (Fatimid Imam-caliph r. 953–75), 23–28, 44, 58–67
Cairo and, 45
Christian churches and their destruction under, 47, 66, 67, 92, 106
Christians’ relationship with, 58–59, 67, 69, 153
compared to al-Hakim, 69, 90, 123, 154
gold dinar from reign of, 82
Great Palace and, 36
house of wisdom (dār al-ḥikma) as distinguished from house of knowledge (dār alʿilm) and, 165n93
Jerusalem and, 133
monuments built under, 44
Muqattam miracle and fictitious conversion to Christianity, 63, 65, 173n45
Yaʿqub ibn Killis as vizier under, 48
Mulder, Stephennie, 158
al-Muqaddasi, 19, 26, 108, 135, 163n22, 176n34
Muqattam Hills (Cairo), 26, 62, 130, 175n9
al-Hakim and, 69, 105, 129, 132, 156
Mosque of al-Luʾluʾa, 129–30, 130, 156
observatory constructed in, 105
Muqattam miracle, 59–66, 62, 173n45
Musa (Jewish friend of Yaʿqub ibn Killis), 59–61
al-Musabbihi, 87, 103, 164n68, 169n15, 169n19, 177n45
muṣallā (open-air prayer space), 28, 30, 32, 93, 164n57
Muslims: on al-Hakim’s policies toward Christians, 89, 110, 131
on al-Muʿizz policies toward Christians, 65–66
relations among Muslims, Jews, and Christians, 4, 7, 51, 56, 64, 162n26. See also call to prayer; Ismaili Shiʿism; Sunnis
al-Mustansir (Fatimid Imam-caliph r. 1036–94), 37, 144, 157
al-Mutawakkil (Abbasid caliph r. 847–61), 166n2, 171n74, 175n89
Nahya Monastery (Giza), 58–59, 112
Nasir-i Khusraw: on Cairo’s pre-capital status, 164n55
conversion to Ismailism, 165n80, 177n54
on Fatimid palace, 7, 37–38, 45
on Jerusalem’s Aqsa Mosque, 177n49, 177n53
on Jerusalem’s Haram al-Sharif, 136, 140, 144–45, 146
on reconstruction of Church of the Holy Sepulcher, 178n88
Necipoğlu, Gülru, 176n27
Nestorians, 67, 168n58, 173n53
Nikephoros I (patriarch), 150
Nikephoros II Phokas (Byzantine emperor r. 963–69), 109
al-Nuʿman, al-Qadi, 14, 28, 43, 51, 82, 162n4, 162n16, 171n2, 174n61
Asās al-taʾwīl (The foundation of allegorical interpretation), 149
The Pillars of Islam, 51, 81, 114
Taʾwīl al-da ʿāʾim (The allegorical interpretation of the pillars), 81, 114
Pact of ʿUmar, 48, 89, 117–18, 155, 174n74
Palestine: Fatimid architecture in, 7
Fatimid control in peril in, 140
Fatimid desire to conquer, 27
Jarrahids in power over, 97. See also Jerusalem
pilgrimages: Christian pilgrimages to Church of the Holy Sepulcher, 109, 119, 178n81
to Fatimid palace and al-Qahira, 42, 80, 81, 84, 153, 170n54
hajj to Mecca, 27, 86, 97
to Imam’s palace, 20
Jerusalem as destination, 144, 145, 176n30
minarets of Mosque of al-Hakim, significance for, 81, 170n54
safe travel assured for, 24
Pyxis of al-Mughira, 18, 19
al-Qadir (Abbasid caliph r. 991–1031), 124
al-Qahira: ceremonial merging with Fustat-Misr, 121
dār al-ʿilm (house of knowledge) established in, 86–87
establishment of, 23–27
first coin minted with name of, 163–64n49
al-Hakim’s rule of, 103
hierarchy of monuments within, 44
map of, 25, 36
al-Maqrizi as source on, 8
meaning of name, 27, 163–64n49
open-air prayer space (muṣallā), 28, 30, 32, 164n57
as palace-city, 28–45
as pilgrimage destination, 81, 84, 170n54
restricted access to, 28
usage compared to “Cairo,” 161n2. See also Fatimid palace (al-Qahira)
al-Qaʾim (Fatimid Imam-caliph r. 935–46), 19, 27
Qalqashandi, 164n68
Qarafa cemetery (Cairo), 44, 129, 130, 156
Qarafa Mosque (Cairo), 130, 165n102
Qarmatians, 26, 27, 162n6, 177n43
Qayrawan (Tunisia): Abu Rakwa settling in, 90
Aghlabids in, 15
Great Mosque of Qayrawan, 16, 17, 99, 99, 102, 124
Qirwash ibn Muqallad, 123–24
Qurʾanic verses, 5, 6; 2:256, 132; 5:55, 82; 9:18, 84–86; 9:107, 102; 11:73, 84; 17:1, 141, 147, 178n66; 24:26–28, 101, 116; 24:27, 172n16; 24:35, 83; 62:9, 101–2. See also specific mosques for inscriptions
Rabbanites, 49–50
Rabbat, Nasser, 162n16, 164n57, 164n63
Ravaisse, Paul, 165n76
religious identity: changes under al-Hakim, 95–96, 101, 102, 115–16, 119, 120, 124–25, 128, 131, 154–56, 174n61, 176n15
complexity of, 4, 7, 111, 156, 158
relationship with architectural space, 1, 3, 153–55, 161n5
in rivalry among caliphates, 6–7. See also bāṭin vs. ẓāhir; dhimmīs; Ismaili Shiʿism; Sunnis
Romanos III Argyros (Byzantine emperor r. 1028–34), 136, 150
al-Ruknu al-Deen Baybars al-Jashankir, 164n74
Sabra al-Mansuriyya, 19
Salamiyya (Syria), 14–15
Saleh, Marlis, 173n45, 176n17
Samaan the Tanner, 61
Samarra, 20, 23, 40, 51, 134, 162n21, 163n22. See also Abbasid caliphate
Sanders, Paula, 28, 32, 81, 102, 121, 163n48, 164n71, 170n50, 170n60, 172n13
Santiago de Compostela (Spain), destruction of Christian shrine of, 121–23
Sawirus ibn al-Muqaffaʾ, 56, 59, 61, 65
Sevener Shiʿism, 161n17
al-Shabushti: Al-Dīyārāt (The monasteries), 57
sharīʿa (Islamic law), 5, 24, 43, 51, 56, 114, 117–19, 129, 155
al-Shayzari, 119
Shepard, Jonathan, 178n81
Shiʿism, sects of, 6–7. See also Abbasid caliphate; Buyids; Fatimid caliphate; Ismaili Shiʿism
al-Sijistani, 43, 45, 82, 170n39, 171n6
Sitt al-Mulk (r. 1021–23), 50, 70, 130, 132, 150
Slav Mukhtar, 87
Spain. See al-Andalus; Umayyads (Cordoba)
Sufis, 136
Suleymaniye Mosque (Istanbul), 178n72
Sunni Revival, transformation of writing in, 170n37
Sunnis, 3
anti-Fatimid views of, 1, 4–6, 8, 24, 28–29, 50, 67, 175n95
conversion efforts of Fatimids to make Sunnis join Shiʿism, 113, 115–16, 123, 175n91
al-Hakim’s anti-Sunni policies, 92, 96, 120, 154, 175n82
al-Hakim’s covering of minarets as part of rapprochement with, 1, 96, 102, 115–16, 124–25, 155
madrasas, 170n55
Maliki, 15, 23, 161n16. See also Abbasid caliphate; Abu Rakwa revolt; al-Andalus; Companions of the Prophet Muhammad
Syria: Fatimid architecture in, 7
Fatimids fighting for control of, 4, 27, 177n43
al-Hakim’s rule of military districts of, 103. See also Byzantine empire; Damascus
Tabbaa, Yasser, 170n37
Tulunids, 58, 136, 177n40
Tunisia: Aghlabids in, 15
Fatimid architecture in, 7, 14, 26, 153
al-Mahdi in, 15. See also al-Mahdiyya; al-Mansuriyya
Twelver Shiʿism, 6, 117, 124, 161n8, 178n79
ʿUmar ibn Khattab (r. 633–44), 117–19
Umayyads (Cordoba): Abassid forms and, 163n22
Abu Rakwa and, 90–91, 96, 120
campaigns against Christians, 122
coins using “Imam” title for ruler, 163n26
compared to Fatimid caliphate, 116–17
cursing of Imams by, 179n1
declaration of caliphate (929), 20
decline in power of, 90
“false Imams” of, 115
Holy War against Fatimids, 15, 20–21
Malikism and, 161n16
al-Mansur (r. 978–1002), 121–23
minarets, 21, 22, 23, 162n16
origins of, 4
Pyxis of al-Mughira, 18, 19
visual expressions of legitimacy, 3, 4, 23
Umayyads (Damascus): Abassid defeat of (750), 134
Jerusalem and, 134, 136, 139, 143
Umm al-Rasas (Jordan), mosaic from, 106
Uqaylids, 6
urbanism of al-Hakim, 10, 69–70, 154, 170n60
compared to other caliphates, 153
Ismailization efforts of al-Hakim, 90, 92
middle years of al-Hakim and, 95, 117, 120–25
Muslim resistance to and obstacles to church restoration and construction, 10, 65–66, 88–89, 154, 171n70. See also Cairo; Fustat-Misr; Mosque of al-Maqs; Mosque of Rashida; al-Qahira
ʿUthman’s Qurʾan, 23, 171n83
van Berchem, Max, 100, 173n44
vizier’s role, 42, 48, 59, 67, 73, 169n19
Walker, Paul, 113, 115, 165n93, 174n61, 175n91
walled cities, 15–16, 26, 28, 45, 99, 163n39
William of Tyre, 13, 42, 45, 109–10, 113, 173n52
Williams, Caroline, 178n80
women: dhimmī women, dress requirements for, 119
al-Hakim’s restrictions on, 3, 72, 101, 116, 175n79
mosque-tomb complexes of Fatimid women, 44
in societal hierarchy, 44
woodwork: carved wooden beams (Fatimid palace), 38, 38–40, 53, 165n86
church screen (Church of Saint Barbara), 52–53
wooden doors (Mosque of al-Azhar), 103–5, 104
Yahya al-Antaki: on Abu Rakwa’s revolt, 91, 171n78
on Church of the Holy Sepulcher destruction, 110, 173–74n53
on Church of the Holy Sepulcher restoration, 150
on conversion of Christians and Jews to Islam, 113
emigration of, 176n12
on Fatimid Egypt, 57
on Fatimid relations with Byzantine empire, 67
on al-Hakim’s ideological propaganda, 123
on al-Hakim’s justice, 88–89
on al-Hakim’s permission for Christian church reconstruction, 131
on al-Hakim’s religious reversals, 171n71, 176n15
on al-Hakim’s sanity, 69, 154
on al-Hakim’s treatment of Sunnis, 175n82
al-Zahir’s reign not covered by, 133
Yaʿqub ibn Killis, 48, 59–61, 66, 73
Yemen, 3, 6–7
Zacharius (patriarch), 88
ẓāhir. See bāṭin vs. ẓāhir
al-Zahir (Fatimid Imam-caliph r. 1021–36): compared to al-Hakim, 132
ideological reasons for choosing to restore Jerusalem, 127, 132, 140, 149, 156, 158
peace treaty with Byzantines, 111, 136, 150
reopening of Mosque of Constantinople and, 174n55
restoration of Christian Jerusalem and, 150–51
restoration of Jerusalem and, 127, 133–34, 136–44, 156–57
as successor of al-Hakim, 127, 129. See also Church of the Holy Sepulcher
Zaydis, 6–7