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Savage, Kirk

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Kirk Savage

Description: Standing Soldiers, Kneeling Slaves: Race, War, and Monument in Nineteenth-Century...

Standing Soldiers, Kneeling Slaves: Race, War, and Monument in Nineteenth-Century America (New Edition)

Index

Author

Kirk Savage

PublisherPrinceton University Press

Stable URL: https://aaeportal.com/?id=-31915

Index

abolitionism, 21; in Boston, 64, 75; in Britain, 21; gradual, 93; as paternalistic, 87. See also abolitionist ideology; abolitionist imagery; abolitionists; emancipation; Greek Slave; U.S. Congress

abolitionist ideology, 35, 49, 72, 75; and convergence with proslavery ideology, 51; and ideal of racial uplift, 72, 75, 78. See also abolitionism; abolitionist imagery; abolitionists; emancipation; slave stereotypes

abolitionist imagery: in popular prints, 22, 23, 24, 40, 43, 45; in sculpture, 15–17, 21, 22, 23, 28. See also abolitionism; abolitionist ideology; abolitionists; emancipation; slavery

abolitionists, 21, 23, 64, 75, 93; racial prejudices of, 81. See also abolitionism; abolitionist ideology; abolitionist imagery; Brown, Henry Kirke; emancipation; women

affirmative action, 192, 210

Africa: missionaries to, 72; personifications of, 59, 126, 128; as primitive, 126, 155. See also African colonization

African American body, 31, 49; classicized, 53–54, 57, 81; and eroticism, 61–62, 77; indeterminacy of, 58–59, 69, 125; marked by slavery, 14; and masculinity, 61–62, 77–78, 117–19; and nudity, 53, 57–58, 61, 73; public invisibility of, 70, 88, 99; in public sculpture, 18, 66, 70, 81–83, 117; as sculptural subject, 14–16, 47, 69, 73, 77, 81, 87, 90, 96, 106, 114, 118, 126; and white nation, 209–10; whitened ideal of, 59. See also African American soldiers; African Americans; slavery; white body

African American history: representation of, in sculpture, 89, 95–96, 104–5. See also African Americans; Hosmer, Harriet; Mills, Clark

African American soldiers, 128, 132; absence from common-soldier monuments, 167, 174–75, 184, 186, 188; absence from public memory, 189–90; as artistic theme, 193; civic status of, 97, 174–75, 196–97; as donors to Lincoln monuments, 92, 94; as emblems of emancipation, 97, 181, 190–91; as emblems of nation-state, 180, 184, 190, 207; experience in Civil War, 174; in folk memory, 189; and masculinity, 96–98, 174–75, 181, 207; Norfolk monument to, 187; and personal agency, 174; proposed national monuments to, 189–90, 191; represented in common-soldier monuments, xi, 187, 192, 200; risks faced by, 195–96; and social identity, 98, 174, 181. See also African American body; African Americans; Shaw, Robert Gould; U.S. Congress

African Americans: in antebellum sculpture, 16–17, 70–72; caricature of, 9, 12, 26–27, 59, 97, 160, 172, 201; counter-memory of, 138, 152; cranial measurements of, 13–14; as donors to monument campaigns, 90–92, 94, 137–38, 196–97; folklore of, 160; in local politics, 184–85, 191; Martin Luther King, Jr. and, xi–xiii; in monument ritual, 138, 151, 153, 161, 188; as monument sponsors, 93–94, 114, 119–20, 186, 187, 189–191, 195, 196–97, 211–212; as national citizens, 3–4, 17, 94, 98, 111, 113, 118, 152, 174–75, 209, 212; in national monuments, xi, 114; as part of public for monuments, 84, 90, 92, 93, 94, 137–38; in popular imagery, 12, 13, 26–27, 45–46, 160; in public sculpture, 86–87, 114, 117–19; in scientific illustration, 9–10, 12; stereotypes of, 12, 27, 158–60, 172, 201. See also African American body; African American soldiers; Lincoln tomb; Native Americans; public space; Saint-Gaudens, Augustus; slavery; slaves

African colonization, 72. See also Africa

Ahearn, John, 5

Alexander, Archer, 115, 116–17, 119

allegory: as monumental sign system, 108; in public sculpture, 32, 40, 47, 62, 86–87, 96, 99, 105, 165, 183; and racial difference, 86–87, 101. See also racial equality; realism; sculpture; veterans

Anderson, Archer, 150–51, 152

Apollo Belvedere, 9, 11, 12, 14, 15, 53, 81, 204. See also sculpture

architects: role in public monuments, 66, 142, 147, 190, 193, 197

Army of Northern Virginia, 130, 135, 136. See also Confederate veterans; Lee, Robert E.

Arrotino, 79, 80

art, nineteenth-century idea of, 107–8; vs. authenticity, 108–9, 183; vs. industry, 192–93; vs. nature, 145; vs. the popular, 108, 145; vs. standardization, 193; vs. truth, 145, 147. See also African American soldiers; allegory; public monuments; sculpture

Ashe, Arthur, monument to, 5, 211, 212

Atlanta Cotton States Exposition, 158

Avery, Charles: monument to, 70, 71, 72, 82

Bakhtin, Mikhail, 12

Ball, Thomas, 73, 95, 124, 203; design for monument to Lincoln, 77, 78, 79–81, 83, 84, 114; Emancipation Group (Boston), 120, 121; racial attitudes of, 81. See also Eliot, Reverend William Greenleaf; Freedmen’s Memorial to Abraham Lincoln; Lincoln monuments

Bandinelli, Hercules and Cacus, 79

Barton, Clara, 112

battle. See warfare

Beaufort, South Carolina, 195

Beecher, Henry Ward, 65, 110

Bellows, Henry, 110, 113; on Hosmer’s design for the Freedmen’s Memorial, 100–101; on Mills’s design for the National Lincoln Monument, 107–108. See also Freedmen’s Memorial to Abraham Lincoln; Hosmer, Harriet; Mills, Clark; National Lincoln Monument Association (Washington, D.C.)

Bickerdyke, Mary, 112

Bingham, William, 137, 138, 139

Birth of a Nation (Griffith), 161

Bissell, George, 180

Blumenbach, Johann Friedrich, 9, 79, 217n.10

Boime, Albert, 202, 203, 256n.97, 256n.98

Boston, 64, 75, 92, 196, 197. See also abolitionism; Boston Brahmins; Boston Common; Emancipation Group; Lincoln monuments; Shaw Memorial

Boston Brahmins, 164, 192, 197

Boston Common, 193, 196

Brattleboro, Vermont, 180

Brooklyn, New York, 67, 69, 192. See also Lincoln monuments

Brown, Henry Kirke, 17, 52, 57; as abolitionist, 31, 36, 41, 48, 50; as advocate of national sculpture, 32; Choosing of the Arrow, 14; as critic of Lincoln, 50; determination to make “Negro” visible in public sculpture, 31, 36, 51, 54; final design for Lincoln monument in New York, 81–82; Lincoln monument in Brooklyn, 67, 68, 69; model for pediment of South Carolina State House, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40–43, 47–51, 157; proposal for House pediment of U.S. Capitol, 31–32, 33, 34–35, 40, 48, 106; proposal for Lincoln monument in New York, 73, 74, 75–77; racial attitudes of, 81. See also Lincoln monuments; South Carolina State House; U.S. Capitol

Brown, John, 48

Browning, Elizabeth Barrett, 28–29, 127

Brunt, Henry Van, 182, 184

Buffalo, New York, 180

Buffon, George, 10

Bullard and Bullard, architects, 190

Bush-Brown, Henry Kirke, 50–51, 81–82

Calhoun, John C., 27, 41, 129

Camper, Petrus, 9

Catawba Indians (South Carolina), 159

Centennial Exhibition, Philadelphia, 87

Charleston, South Carolina, 195

Chase, Salmon, 110

Chesnutt, Charles, 160

Chicago, Illinois, 124, 126, 128, 197, 203. See also Hosmer, Harriet; Lincoln monuments; Saint-Gaudens, Augustus

Child, Lydia Maria, 93

citizen-soldier, 19, 163, 188; African American, 98, 196; and American nationalism, 167–68; generic body of, 176–77; mythology of, 167–68, 177; redefinition of, 176–77, 207; sculptural proliferation of, 182. See also common soldier; nationalism, American; volunteer soldiers

Civil War, 3, 210; casualties in, 162, 166; moral cause of, 67, 165; and nationalism, 184; and sectional reconciliation, 132, 150; transformation of warfare, 173; becomes war on slavery, 52, 173. See also African American soldiers; commemoration; common soldier; nationalism, American; proslavery ideology; war memorials; warfare

Clark, Edward, 142

Clay, Edward W., 27

Cleveland, Grover, 152

Cleveland, Ohio, 180, 192

Coffin, F. M., 45

Cold War, the, xi

collective memory: distinct from history, 215n.4; in nineteenth-century U.S., 6–7; and ritual, 136; theory of, 6–7, 216n.6. See also commemoration; emancipation; public monuments; slavery

Colored People’s Educational Monument Association, 93–94, 104. See also Douglass, Frederick; Garnet, Henry Highland

Columbia, North Carolina, 158

Columbia, South Carolina. See Brown, Henry Kirke; South Carolina State House

commemoration: of alternative futures, x; as closure, 4, 64, 65, 70, 75, 87, 121; and history, 66, 98, 101–102, 213; landscape of, 20, 212; Northern vs. Southern, 130, 178–79; process of, 4, 7; racial parity in, xi–xii; role of sculpture in, 66; surge of interest in, after the Civil War, 69–70. See also collective memory; Confederate commemoration; emancipation; history; Lincoln, Abraham; Massachusetts 54th regiment; Union commemoration; white supremacy

common soldier: appearance in public sculpture, x, 162, 166, 176; changing role in warfare, 173; duality of image, 168; experience in Civil War, 169–70, 173; and loss of personal agency, 170, 173–74, 177; and masculinity, 167, 170, 172, 174; in national monument to Lincoln, 111–12. See also soldiering

common-soldier monuments: and authenticity, 183–84; criticism of, 182, 192–93, 210; demographics of, 185; and emancipation, 84–87, 180; equate military and civic valor, 178, 206; inscriptions on, 178–180; in local communities, x, 178, 183, 185, 210; and masculinity, 167, 177, 188, 207; modern invention of, 19, 162, 166; moral neutrality of, 178, 206; and nationalism, 183, 184, 207–208; parade rest pose of, 164, 176–77; and patriotism, 178, 211; and physiognomy, 163, 187; popularity of, 166, 182, 184, 193; proliferation of, 162, 164, 166, 178, 181–82; as racial construct, 181, 186–88, 190; as reactionary, 208; redefinition of heroism, 177; as representation of warfare, 183–84; ritual of, 188; siting of, 162; standardization of, 163–64, 177, 182–83, 193; in twentieth century, 211; as vernacular idiom, 184; and whiteness, 162–63, 167, 181–82, 186–88, 190, 209. See also African American soldiers; ethnicity, in common-soldier monuments; nationalism, American; New England, and common-soldier monuments; veterans; women

Confederacy, 52, 62, 129, 130, 131, 212. See also Confederate commemoration; Confederate veterans; Lee, Robert E.; proslavery ideology

Confederate commemoration, 18, 152; disavowal of slavery, 129–31, 149, 157–58; and progress, 148–50; in recent times, ix, 211–212. See also Confederacy; Confederate veterans; Union commemoration

Confederate veterans, 135–36, 137, 145, 147, 155. See also Lee Monument; veterans

contrabands. See fugitives from slavery

Copperheads, 84

countermemory. See African Americans

Craven, Wayne, 231n.58

Crawford, Thomas, 32

Cromwell, John, 117

Crow, Wayman, 93

Cruikshank, George, 40

Cumberworth, Charles, 15

Currier and Ives, 72

Curry, Jabez, 134–35

Cuvier, Georges, 9

Davis, Jefferson, 131, 148

Davis, William Morris, 36, 48–49

Declaration of Independence, 120

Defiance: Inviting a Shot before Petersburg (Homer), 170–73, 171

de Kay, Charles, 64

Democratic Party, 180

design competitions. See Lee Monument; Lincoln tomb

Detroit, Michigan. See Michigan Soldiers’ and Sailors’ Monument

Dix, Dorothea, 112

Douglas, Stephen, 107

Douglass, Frederick, 30, 92, 122; on integration versus separatism, 93–94, 104; on masculinity, 117–18; monument to, 253n.58; as sculptural emblem of emancipation, 110–11; speech at Freedmen’s Memorial, 114, 117–20. See also Colored People’s Educational Monument Association; Freedmen’s Memorial to Abraham Lincoln; Lincoln, Abraham

DuBois, W. E. B., 161, 207; Souls of Black Folk, 160

Early, Jubal, 135, 136, 137, 138, 144

École des Beaux-Arts, 146, 147, 148

Eliot, Reverend William Greenleaf, 93, 112; and Archer Alexander, 115, 116–17; and Thomas Ball, 114

Eliott, Charles W., 193

emancipation, xii, 63; African American celebrations of, 65; as challenge to nation, 3, 17, 89–90; in collective memory, 5, 65, 122, 128; as commemorative subject, 18, 19, 65, 84–87, 100–101, 113, 120–21, 125, 128, 213; and femininity, 59, 77; as incomplete historical process, 18, 56–57, 65, 98, 102–103; as manumission, 74–75, 77, 80, 83, 87; marginalization of, 19, 121–22, 124–25; and masculinity, 59, 77–78, 118–19; as narrative orchestrated by Lincoln, 65–66, 72, 77, 79, 83, 87, 99–100, 117, 118; and national memory, 5, 100–101; negative imagery of, 27, 160; popular imagery of, 56, 72, 120–21; as rebirth, 59, 80; as sculptural subject, 54, 63–64, 65–66, 72, 85–87, 90, 96–97, 101–3, 105–6, 117–19, 126; subordinated to idea of Union, 84, 100, 122. See also African American soldiers; common-soldier monuments; Douglass, Frederick; Freedman; Union commemoration; Ward, John Quincy Adams

Emancipation Group (Ball), 18, 120, 121, 211. See also Ball, Thomas; Freedmen’s Memorial to Abraham Lincoln; Lincoln monuments

Emancipation Monument. See Freedmen’s Memorial to Abraham Lincoln

Emancipation Proclamation, 52–56, 67, 103, 213; in Missouri, 116; in monument proposals, 77, 83, 95, 102, 104, 122, 124; in public monuments, 81, 101. See also emancipation; Lincoln, Abraham

equestrian monuments: to Andrew Jackson (Mills), 107; to Frederick the Great (Rauch), 66, 109; to Marcus Aurelius, 39; as metaphor of dominance, 133, 150, 196; and modern warfare, 198. See also Lee, Robert E.; Lee Monument; Shaw Memorial

ethnicity, in common-soldier monuments, 186. See also race

Ezekiel, Moses: proposal for Lee Monument, 141–42, 143, 146

faithful slaves: Fort Mill monument to, 155, 156, 157–61, 162; and mammy figure, 158–59; proposed monuments to, 158; white memory of, 157–59. See also slavery; slaves

Faust, Drew Gilpin, 129

Ferdinand, Grand Duke, Monument to, 23, 26

Fisk Jubilee Singers, 160

folk memory, 7, 189. See also African American soldiers; collective memory

Forbes, John M., 200

Fort Mill, South Carolina, 159. See also faithful slaves

Fort Wagner, South Carolina, 194–95, 197, 206. See also Massachusetts 54th regiment; Shaw, Robert Gould

Foster, Stephen, 172; My Old Kentucky Home, 158

Fourteenth Amendment, 62, 103

Franklin, Benjamin, 21

free labor ideology, 35. See also abolitionist ideology; proslavery ideology

Freedman (Ward), 53, 209; as agent of his own emancipation, 56; and classical canon, 53–54, 57, 60, 62; as commemorative object, 54, 64, 87, 165; comparisons of other works with, 63–64, 73, 81, 87, 98; eroticism of, 61–62, 73; as liminal figure, 55, 59, 62, 64; masculinity of, 61–62; nudity of, 53, 57–62; as promise of new sculptural order, 54, 62, 125; realism of, 54, 57, 60; reception of, 52, 53–54, 55, 60–62, 64; title of, 56–57. See also Howells, William Dean; Ward, John Quincy Adams

Freedmen’s Bureau bill, 92

Freedmen’s Memorial to Abraham Lincoln (Ball), 18, 19, 91, 122, 125, 128, 197, 209; Ball’s designs for, 78, 114, 115, 118; dedication of, 114, 117–20; as enactment of Reconstruction, 89–90, 92, 119; fundraising campaign for, 89–92, 94; Hosmer’s designs for, 94–100, 95, 99; as image of domination, 90, 119, 129; and National Lincoln Monument Association (Springfield, Illinois), 100–101, 103, 111, 114; and National Lincoln Monument Association (Washington, D.C.), 103–4, 111, 114; as portrait of Archer Alexander, 115–17; public for, 92, 94, 120; repetition of, 120–21; white sponsorship of, 92–93. See also Ball, Thomas; Bellows, Henry; Douglass, Frederick; Hosmer, Harriet; Lincoln tomb; National Lincoln Monument Association (Washington, D.C.); Reconstruction; U.S. Congress; Western Sanitary Commission of St. Louis

Frémont, John Charles, 116

Fremont, Ohio, 185

French, Daniel Chester, Lincoln Memorial, 128, 212

French, Samuel Bassett, 137, 138, 139, 140

fugitives from slavery, 52, 55, 62, 63, 93, 115–16; as heroic, 15; imagery of, 57, 58, 73, 96, 192, 227n.12. See also slavery; slaves

Fuller, James, 187

Garfield, James, 169, 170

Garnet, Henry Highland, 93

Garrison, William Lloyd, 64

Gettysburg: battle of, 62, 166; national soldiers cemetery, 4

Gettysburg Address (Lincoln), 3, 4, 54, 124, 178

Gliddon, George R. See Types of Mankind

Grand Army of the Republic, 188, 247n.1

Grant, Ulysses S., 106, 110

Greek Slave (Powers), 29, 59; abolitionist interpretations of, 28–29; comparisons of other works with, 34, 57; as ideal sculpture, 29–31, 50, 54; as phantasm of slavery, 30; slaveholders’ acceptance of, 29, 36; whiteness of, 30

Greeley, Horace, 124, 160

Greenough, Horatio, George Washington, 54, 58, 62

Griffith, D. W., 161

grotesque, 12, 59, 160

Habermas, Jürgen, 216n.6

Hampton, Wade, 36

Harnische, A. E., 102–3

Harrison, Benjamin, 152

Hart, Charles Henry, 124–25

Hatt, Michael, 61, 228n.24

Hayne, Robert, 36

Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich, 43

heroism: African American, 15, 57, 59, 62, 111, 132, 189, 206; redefinition of, 18–19, 176–77, 207; sculpture and, 23, 55, 58, 67, 69, 73, 108, 125, 133, 176–77, 207; in warfare, 168, 170, 171–72; white, 54, 58, 83, 88, 96, 125, 130, 132, 197, 203–4, 206. See also common-soldier monuments; fugitives from slavery; history; Lee, Robert E.; sculpture; slaves; valor; warfare

Higginson, Thomas Wentworth, 98, 170, 174, 195

history: and commemoration, 66; as heroic tale of great men, 66, 69

Hoen, A. and Co., 134

Homer, Winslow. See Defiance: Inviting a Shot before Petersburg

Hosmer, Harriet: African Sibyl, 127; in design competition for Lincoln tomb, 101–3; designs for Freedmen’s Memorial, 94–100, 95, 99; design for Lincoln monument in Chicago, 125–28, 127; failure to realize designs, 103, 113, 128, 209; as high artist, 107–8, 109, 145; on slavery, 93. See also Bellows, Henry; Freedmen’s Memorial to Abraham Lincoln; Mills, Clark

Houdon, Jean Antoine, 130

Houston, Sam, 136

Hove, Victor van, 220n.29

Howard University, 189

Howells, William Dean, xi; and critique of militarism, 164, 204; on Freedman, 58–59, 64, 165–66; on nature of public monuments, 66; on new national order, 17, 18; on war memorials, 19, 84, 164–66, 167, 182, 205

Hunt, Richard Morris, 163

Ignatiev, Noel, 19

“I Have a Dream” speech, xi

Indianapolis, 180

Indians. See Native Americans

Irish-Americans, 81–82, 89, 186

Jackson, Andrew, 107, 167

James, Henry: on Lee Monument, 148, 154; on the “Negro,” 154–55; on Richmond, 154

James, William: on civic valor, 206–7; on militarism, 205; oration at Shaw Memorial, 193, 204–7

Jarves, James Jackson, 54, 61, 64

Jefferson, Thomas, 130, 167

Jim Crow, 128, 152

Johns, Henry T., 170

Johnson, Andrew, 92

Jordan, Winthrop, 19

Keegan, John, 170, 173

Kemper, James, 137, 138, 139, 145–46, 151

Kimball, Moses, 120

King, Martin Luther, Jr., xi–xii, 212, 213; monument to, xii–xiii

Korean War, the, xi

Ladies Union Aid Society of St. Louis, 111–12

Langston, John Mercer, 92

Lee, Colonel Henry, 200

Lee, Fitzhugh, 146, 148, 150

Lee, Robert E., 162; African American attitudes toward, 132, 138; as “American” hero, 139, 152, 161; as embodiment of Confederacy, 130–31, 135, 140; equestrian image of, 133, 134, 135, 141–44, 146, 150, 196; and horse Traveller, 133–35; Northern attitudes toward, 132; popular memory of, 137; as racial icon, 132; as sculptural subject, 132, 140–41, 143–44; and slavery, 131; and white mastery, 133–35, 142, 146. See also Lincoln, Abraham; white supremacy

Lee Monument (Mercié): African American participation in, 137–38, 151–53; African American reception of, 151–53; and class division, 151; and Confederate veterans, 135, 136, 137, 145, 147; covered in The Richmond Planet, ix, 151–54; design competitions for, 109, 139–46; design proposals for, 109, 142, 143, 144; fundraising for, 136–39; and gender division, 135, 139–40, 145–46, 150; as image of “the people,” 150–51; Mercié’s final design for, 147, 148; as national monument, 136, 152; Northern reception of, 152; and racial division, 151–52; ritual of, 136–38, 150–52; siting of, 148–50; and slavery, 130, 150, 152, 154, 157; and white supremacy, 135, 138–39, 150–52, 155, 157; women’s participation in, 135, 139–40, 145–146, 148, 150. See also Ezekiel, Moses; James, Henry; Mercié, Antonin; Mills, Clark; Ream [Hoxie], Vinnie; Saint-Gaudens, Augustus, Ward, John Quincy Adams

Leonidas, 196

Lewis, Edmonia, Forever Free, 63, 64

Lincoln, Abraham, 50, 56, 68, 72, 74, 76, 78, 82, 91, 105, 115, 121, 123; as art critic, 108–09; assassination, 70, 90; as commemorative subject, 65–66, 67, 70, 81, 87–88, 90, 101, 119–20, 121–22, 124–25, 212; compared to Lee, 131–32; compromises with proslavery Unionists, 116–17; early monument campaigns for, 69–70; as embodiment of Union, 125, 130; Frederick Douglass on, 119; as ideal figure, 80, 122, 124–25; as master, 74–75, 91, 133; noncanonical body of, 67, 69, 114, 131–33; physiognomy of, 69; as prophet, 126; as savior of Union, 122, 124–25, 180; as sculptural subject, 69, 73–74, 83, 96, 99–100, 114, 122, 131; as white man’s President, 119, 122. See also African American soldiers; Brown, Henry Kirke; Colored People’s Educational Monument Association; emancipation; Emancipation Proclamation; Freedmen’s Memorial to Abraham Lincoln; Gettysburg Address; Hosmer, Harriet; ~Lincoln Memorial; Lincoln monuments; Lincoln tomb; Mills, Clark; National Lincoln Monument Association (Washington, D.C.); Ream [Hoxie], Vinnie; Rogers, John; Rogers, Randolph; Saint-Gaudens, Augustus

Lincoln Memorial, Washington, D.C. (French), 128, 212; Martin Luther King, Jr.’s address at, xi

Lincoln monuments

—Boston. See Emancipation Group

—Brooklyn, by Henry Kirke Brown, 66, 67, 69

—Chicago: Seated Lincoln (Saint-Gaudens), 126, 128; Standing Lincoln (Saint-Gaudens), 122, 123, 124–26, 197, 203, 212

—New York, by Henry Kirke Brown, 73, 77, 81–82

—Philadelphia, by Randolph Rogers, 72, 76, 77, 81, 83–84

—Springfield, Illinois. See Lincoln tomb

—Washington, D.C. See Freedmen’s Memorial to Abraham Lincoln; Lincoln Memorial

Lincoln tomb, Springfield, Illinois (Mead): and African Americans, 94, 103, 114; design competition for, 101–3; final design for, 66, 101; fundraising for, 6, 66, 94, 103; proposed merger with Freedmen’s Memorial, 100, 103, 114; rivalry with National Lincoln Monument Association (Washington, D.C.), 69, 103, 111. See also Freedmen’s Memorial to Abraham Lincoln; Lincoln monuments; National Lincoln Monument Association (Washington, D.C.)

Lincoln’s tomb. See Lincoln tomb

Livingston, Alabama, Confederate Soldiers Monument, 165

Lossing, Benson, 166

Lost Cause, 130, 131, 132, 155, 161. See also Confederate commemoration

Lynn, Massachusetts, 183

Mahone, William, 138

Mall, Washington, D.C., xi, 114, 212

manumission: iconography of, 75, 96, 98, 114; rite of, 74–75. See also emancipation

Marietta, Ohio, 90

masculinity, 30, 59, 61–62, 77–78, 96–98, 117–19, 167–68, 181, 188, 207. See also African American body; African American soldiers; common soldier; common-soldier monuments; Douglass, Frederick; emancipation; Freedman; slavery

Massachusetts. See abolitionism; Boston; Lynn; Shaw Memorial

Massachusetts 2nd regiment, 195

Massachusetts 54th regiment, 194; commemoration of, 195–97, 200, 211; difficulties faced by, 196. See also Shaw, Robert Gould; Shaw Memorial

Massachusetts State House, 193

McDuffie, George, 36

McKim, Charles, 193

Mead, Larkin, 66, 101. See also Lincoln tomb

Mercié, Antonin: final design for Lee Monument, 146, 147, 148; first design proposal for Lee Monument, 146; and Saint-Gaudens, Augustus, 146. See also Lee Monument

Michelangelo, 79, 106

Michigan Soldiers’ and Sailors’ Monument (R. Rogers), 86–87, 180

militarism, 164, 168, 177–78, 205, 207, 211. See also Howells, William Dean; James, William

Miller, Polk, 159–60, 161

Mills, Clark, 36, 217n.9; compared to Harriet Hosmer, 107–8, 145; as Confederate sympathizer, 107; design for National Lincoln Monument, 104, 105, 106–13; monument to Andrew Jackson, 107; monument to George Washington, 109; as popular sculptor, 107, 109, 145; proposal for Lee Monument, 109; as slaveholder, 106–7. See also National Lincoln Monument Association (Washington, D.C.)

Mills, Fisk, 237n.60

Milmore, Martin, 249n.11

minstrelsy, 12, 97, 160, 219n.19

Mitchell, John, ix, 151–54

Mitchell, George H., 179

Monument Avenue: development of, 148–50; in 1907, 149; in post-Civil Rights era, ix, 211–12, 256n.1. See also Lee Monument; Richmond

monument industry, 164, 182

Morrison, Toni, 20

Murray, Freeman, 120, 161

Nast, Thomas, Patience on a Monument, 175, 176

Natchitoches, Louisiana, Good Darky, 158

nation, American: interracial ideal of, 17, 70, 89, 94, 103–4, 112–13, 210; and “the people,” 5; redefinition of, 3–5, 18–19, 54, 70, 89–90, 98, 103, 113, 122, 161, 208, 209–10. See also African American body; African American soldiers; emancipation; nationalism, American; public monuments; race; Reconstruction

National Academy of Design, 53

National Lincoln Monument Association (Springfield, Illinois). See Lincoln tomb

National Lincoln Monument Association (Washington, D.C.), 69; Clark Mills’s design for, 104, 105, 106–12; failure of, 113; fund raising of, 103–4, 110–12; origin of, 103; proposed merger with Freedmen’s memorial, 103, 104, 111, 114. See also Freedmen’s Memorial to Abraham Lincoln; Mills, Clark

nationalism, American: and citizen-soldier, 167; after the Civil War, 184; and common-soldier monuments, 183, 184, 207–8; and “the people,” 6; and public monuments, 6. See also citizen-soldier; Civil War; common-soldier monuments; nation, American

Native Americans, 32, 58; in antebellum sculpture, 14; compared to African Americans, 14; cranial measurements of, 13–14; as ideal, 15, 223n.28. See also Catawba Indians

neo-Confederate movement, ix

New England, and common-soldier monuments, 177

New-England’s Freedmen’s Aid Society, 94

New Orleans, 28, 29

New York, New York, 17, 52, 67, 70, 73, 77, 81, 82, 128, 163. See also Lincoln monuments; New York 7th regiment

New York 7th Regiment (Ward), 195, 206; monument to, 162, 163, 164, 176

Newport, Rhode Island, Common Burying Ground, 16

Niehaus, Charles, proposal for Lee Monument, 143, 144, 146

Nora, Pierre, 215n.4, 216n.6

Norfolk, Virginia, 65, 187

Norton, Charles Eliot, 66, 70–72

Page, Thomas Nelson, 157

Pasquale, Paul D., 211

patriotism, 178, 211; African American, 111. See also nationalism, American

Patterson, Orlando, Slavery and Social Death, 15, 30, 74, 219n.25

Petersburg, battle of, 170, 171, 172

Pezzicar, Francesco, 87

Philadelphia, 72, 76, 77, 81, 84, 87. See also Centennial Exhibition; Lincoln monuments

Phillips, Wendell, 160

photography, 141, 149, 153–54; compared to sculpture, 9. See also war photography

Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, 70, 72. See also Avery, Charles

Pittsfield, Massachusetts, 187

portrait sculpture, 106; essential to monuments, 66; limitations of, 67, 69; problem of, 122, 125, 141

Powers, Hiram, 23, 83. See also Greek Slave

Preston, John, 36

proslavery ideology, 27, 31, 41; after the Civil War, 150, 160; and the Confederacy, 129; paradoxes of, 43, 50. See also abolitionist ideology

proslavery imagery, 26–27, 31, 43, 44, 45. See also abolitionist imagery

Providence, Rhode Island. See Rhode Island Soldiers’ and Sailors’ Monument

public monuments: alternative histories and, x; in cemeteries, 70, 72, 162, 249n.11; as conservative, 4, 211; democratization of, 5, 162; function of, 4, 6–8, 209, 210; fundraising for, 6, 91–92, 103–4, 110, 136–39, 188; to great men, 150, 176, 178; as high art, 66; as image of “the people,” 7–8, 150–51; interracial, xi–xii, 70, 89, 117, 125, 211; lessons learned in studying selection and building of, ix–x; as means to gain civic recognition, 6, 94, 111, 119–20, 161; as national self-definition, 6–7, 89, 103, 207–8, 209–10; national vs. local, 89; permanence of, 4, 8, 65, 75, 84, 117, 211; as popular expression, 6–8, 66; public for, 84, 89, 92, 94, 100, 110, 112–13, 136, 161; recent removals of Confederate, ix; ritual of, 6, 7, 136, 138, 150–55, 188; siting of, 148; as unique, 181–82. See also African Americans; architects; common-soldier monuments; emancipation; Emancipation Proclamation; equestrian monuments; Howells, William Dean; Lincoln monuments; nationalism, American; public space; sculpture; war memorials; women; individual entries for monuments

public space: in nineteenth-century U.S., 5–6; as representational battleground, 5; as site of monuments, 65, 162; visibility of African Americans in, 17, 18, 88, 89, 189. See also public monuments; public sphere

public sphere, 209, 216n.6; in nineteenth-century U.S., 6–7. See also public monuments; public space; whiteness

Pujol, Paul, 147

Quarles, Benjamin, 7, 120

race: and classical sculpture, 8–9, 11, 61; definition of, 8, 217n.8; and dominant culture, 20; and human body, 8–9, 11–12, 15, 90, 119, 209; and idea of the nation, 4, 20, 113, 209–10; invention of, 8. See also racial theory; slavery

race relations, 88, 155, 191, 210; idealization of, 157–59. See also race; Richmond

racial equality, 84, 103, 104; allegory of, 111; failure to imagine, 113, 119; understood in the human body, 119

racial parity in commemoration, xi–xii

racial theory: and classical sculpture, 8–9, 11, 30, 217n.10; and facial angle, 30, 73. See also race

racism, 8, 20, 64, 81, 134, 201, 211. See also race; racial theory

Randolph, Sarah Nicholas, 139, 145, 148

Rauch, Christian Daniel, 66, 109

realism: literary, 59; reconciled with classicism, 54, 60; in sculpture, 54, 57–58, 106, 122, 125; vs. allegory, 108, 115, 183. See also Freedman

Ream [Hoxie], Vinnie: Abraham Lincoln (U.S. Capitol), 81, 82, 83; and Lee Monument competition, 145, 244n.44. See also Lee Monument

Reconstruction, 18, 70, 102, 103, 111, 175, 209, 210, 213; as cultural challenge, 4, 17, 78, 113; failure of, 113, 121–22, 128, 152; and Freedmen’s Memorial, 89–90, 92, 119; in Virginia, 135. See also Freedmen’s Memorial to Abraham Lincoln; U.S. Congress

Regular Army soldiers: image of, 168, 169, 170; vs. volunteers, 164, 167–68. See also common soldier; volunteer soldiers

Republican Party, 72, 137, 152

Republicans, radical, 103, 107, 111, 113, 145

Revolutionary War, 70, 194; army, 167, 168; monuments to, 166

Rhode Island Soldiers’ and Sailors’ Monument (R. Rogers), 84, 85, 86, 180

Richards, T. Addison, 46

Richardson, Henry Hobson, 197, 198

Richmond Planet, The, ix, 151–54

Richmond, Virginia, 144, 160; and legacy of slavery, 130, 154; as modern city, 130, 149–50; in post-Civil Rights era, 211–12; race relations in, 151, 212; State Capitol, 130, 138, 148, 149. See also James, Henry; Lee Monument; Monument Avenue

Rochester, New York, 186, 189, 191

Roediger, David, 19

Rogers, John: proposal for Lincoln monument in Philadelphia, 72; Slave Auction, 16, 17, 28, 53

Rogers, Randolph, 73, 249n.11; final design for Lincoln monument in Philadelphia, 81; proposals for Lincoln monument in Philadelphia, 76, 77, 83–84. See also Michigan Soldiers’ and Sailors’ Monument; Lincoln monuments; Rhode Island Soldiers’ and Sailors’ Monument

Saint-Gaudens, Augustus: on jury for Lee Monument, 142–43, 146; life studies of African Americans, 201–2; Lincoln Monument, Chicago (Seated Lincoln), 126, 128; Lincoln Monument, Chicago (Standing Lincoln), 122, 123, 124–26, 197, 203, 212; and merger of real and ideal, 125, 128, 203; racial prejudices of, 201; Shaw Memorial, 193, 194, 197–98, 199, 200, 201–4, 206–7, 210. See also Lee Monument; Lincoln monuments; Shaw Memorial

St. Louis, Missouri, 93, 116. See also Ladies Union Aid Society of St. Louis; Western Sanitary Commission of St. Louis

Sandusky County, Ohio, Soldiers’ Monument, 185, 186

Scott, Charlotte, 90–91, 94, 120

Scott, Sir Walter, monument to, 66

sculptors: African American, 63; and monument sponsors, 7, 66, 69, 83–84, 110–12, 114–15, 118, 146–48, 198–201, 203. See also sculpture; individual entries for sculptors

sculpture: academic, 141, 143, 145, 146; canon, 9, 11–12, 53, 69, 81, 107; classical tradition of, 9–12, 14–16, 32, 53–54, 58, 177; and heroic body, 15, 23, 55, 58, 67, 69, 106, 108, 176–77; and human body, 8–9, 12, 14, 66–67, 78, 89, 90, 117, 119, 176; ideal, 28–30, 32, 57, 59, 127; ideal vs. real, 125, 128; language of, 66–67, 78, 89, 119; as monumental medium, 8, 66, 82, 84, 117, 120; national, 32; and naturalism, 57; and nudity, 30, 57, 58, 62; popular vs. high art, 107, 108, 145; and representation of racial “color,” 16–17, 42, 81. See also abolitionist imagery; African American body; African American history; African Americans; allegory; commemoration; common soldier; heroism; Native Americans; photography; portrait sculpture; race; racial theory; realism; slaveholders; slavery; slaves; South Carolina; U.S. Capitol

Seward, William, 108–9

Shakespeare, William, Titus Andronicus, 178

Shaw, Robert Gould, x, 194; in African American memory, 196; early attempts to commemorate, 195; glorification of, 195–96, 204, 206; reputation linked to African American soldiers, 197; William James on, 206. See also Massachusetts 54th regiment; Shaw Memorial

Shaw Memorial (Saint-Gaudens), x, 193, 194, 198, 199, 200, 210, 211; design history of, 197–201; early campaign for, 196–97; as fusion of types, 194; inscriptions for, 193, 255n.94; reception of, 203–4; relationship of commander to troops, 202–3; as representation of black diversity, 201; rhythms of, 202; and slavery, 204, 205; as unique war memorial, 194, 201; William James’s oration on, 204–7. See also Massachusetts 54th regiment; Saint-Gaudens, Augustus; Shaw, Robert Gould

Sherman, William Tecumseh, 50, 106

slave labor, 31, 34, 38, 41, 154; in Clark Mills’s foundry, 106; and consciousness, 43; gang system of, 43, 47; imagery of, 43, 45, 46, 47–48, 157, 158–59; as representational dilemma, 45–48; and skill, 42–43; task system of, 47, 49

slave stereotypes, 28, 219n.23; abolitionist, 49; ambivalent, 46–47; in ancient theater, 12, 218n.19; compared to soldier stereotypes, 169. See also African Americans

slaveholders, 5, 29, 31, 35, 49–50, 169, 178; defense of, 150, 180; as patrons of sculpture, 29, 31, 35–36, 57, 107, 157; in South Carolina, 29, 36, 41. See also proslavery ideology; proslavery imagery; slavery

slavery: abolitionist emblem of, 21, 22, 52, 73; and African American body, 14; ancient imagery of, 23, 74, 224n.46; attempts to idealize, 31, 43, 47, 50, 157–61; in collective memory, 5, 101, 129–30, 138, 152, 154, 157–58, 161, 167, 181, 207; iconography of, 21, 23, 26, 34, 41–42, 90, 106, 221n.2; and masculinity, 30, 117–18; in Missouri, 93, 116; in personal memory, 129, 155, 157; and race, 3–4, 15, 42, 113, 119, 129, 211; and sculpture, 14–15, 17, 35, 50; as “social death,” 30, 219n.25; in South Carolina, 42, 209. See also abolitionism; African American body; Civil War; Confederate commemoration; fugitives from slavery; Greek Slave; Lee Monument; proslavery ideology; proslavery imagery; Shaw Memorial; slaves; soldiering

slaves: ambiguous status of, 46, 50; in antebellum sculpture, 16–17, 32, 34, 38, 47, 52; and blackness, 19, 42; as heroic, 15, 17; as liminal, 15, 46, 219n.25; in postwar sculpture, 74, 77, 79–81, 83, 90, 96, 104–6, 114–19; as soldiers, 97–98, 170. See also faithful slaves; fugitives from slavery; slavery; women

Smith, Joshua B., 196, 197

Smith, W. L. G., 45

Society of the Cincinnati, 194, 196

soldier monuments. See common-soldier monuments

soldiering: compared to slavery, 168–70, 181; and discipline, 169, 177. See also Civil War; common soldier; Regular Army soldiers; volunteer soldiers; warfare

South Carolina, 209; patronage of sculpture in, 29, 31, 35–36, 107; as proslavery center, 31, 35, 41. See also Beaufort; Brown, Henry Kirke; Catawba Indians; Charleston; faithful slaves; Fort Mill; Fort Wagner; slaveholders; slavery; South Carolina State House; white supremacy

South Carolina State House, 31, 36, 37, 41, 48; Henry Kirke Brown’s pediment project for, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40–43, 47–51. See also Brown, Henry Kirke

Springfield, Illinois. See Lincoln Tomb

Stebbins, Henry, 176

Story, William Wetmore: Libyan Sibyl, 59, 60, 197; and Shaw Memorial, 197

Stowe, Harriet Beecher, 45; Dred, 15, 17; on Libyan Sibyl, 59; on Sojourner Truth, 15; Uncle Tom’s Cabin, 40, 45. See also Story, William Wetmore

Stuart, J. E. B., 148

Sumner, Charles, 195, 196, 197

Sundquist, Eric, 20

Tacca, Pietro, Monument to Grand Duke Ferdinand, 23, 26

Taft, Lorado, 125, 179

Tennyson, Alfred Lord, 127

Terry, Mississippi, 137

Thermopylae, 196

Thompson, John, 186

Three Servicemen monument, xi

Tidal Basin, Washington, D. C., xii

Torso, Belvedere, 53

Truth, Sojourner, 15, 59, 87

Tuckerman, Henry, 64

Turner, Victor, 228n.17

Twain, Mark, 159

Types of Mankind (Nott and Gliddon), 9, 10, 12, 13–15, 53, 218n.14

Union commemoration, 109, 142; and Confederate commemoration, 164, 178–79; and emancipation, 83–84, 96–97, 100–101, 124–25, 178–80, 205, 212. See also Confederate commemoration; emancipation; Lincoln, Abraham

United Daughters of the Confederacy, 158, 253n.64

U.S. Capitol, 54, 64, 114, 166; Henry Kirke Brown’s model for House pediment, 32, 33, 34–35; sculpture of, 41, 81, 82, 83, 107, 145

U.S. Colored Troops, 186

U.S. Congress: and abolition of slavery, 62; and Freedmen’s Memorial, 114; and National Lincoln Monument Association (Washington, D.C.), 103; and proposal for monument to African American soldiers, 189–90; and Reconstruction Act, 103

U.S. Sanitary Commission, 100

U.S. Supreme Court, 114, 128

Valentine, Edward, 133; proposal for Lee Monument, 134, 141, 142

valor: African American, 188; civic, 206–7; military, 188, 206; white, 150–51, 157, 188, 209. See also common-soldier monuments; heroism; James, William

Van Rensselaer, Marianna Griswold, 69, 125, 131–32

Verhaegen, Louis, 70, 71. See also Avery, Charles

veterans: honored in common-soldier monuments, 162, 166; as monument consumers, 162, 187; as monument sponsors, 162, 178, 247n.1; opposed to allegorical monuments, 183; racial segregation of, 188. See also Confederate veterans; Grand Army of the Republic

Vietnam Veterans Memorial, xi, 5

Vietnam War, Martin Luther King, Jr. on, xii–xiii

Virey, Julien Joseph, 10–11

Virginia, 131, 134, 136, 144, 160; politics in, 135, 138–39, 211–12; press, 145, 147; women elite of, 135, 139. See also Lee Monument; Norfolk; Reconstruction; Richmond; white supremacy

Volk, Leonard, 102

volunteer soldiers, 164, 170, 177, 181; African American, 194; vs. Regular Army soldiers, 163, 167–68. See also citizen-soldier; common soldier; Regular Army soldiers

war memorials, xi, 64; before the Civil War, 166; modern transformation of, 19, 162, 166. See also common-soldier monuments; Howells, William Dean; Shaw Memorial

War of 1812, 167

war photography, 57, 164, 165, 172, 174

Ward, John Quincy Adams, 81, 122; on emancipation, 56; experience of slavery, 57; Freedman, 52, 53, 54–63, 64–65, 81, 125, 209; Indian Hunter, 58; on jury for Lee Monument, 142–43; monument to Henry Ward Beecher, 65; monument to New York 7th regiment, 163, 164. See also Freedman

warfare: and heroism, 170–71, 177; imagery of, 170–72, 183–84; modern transformation of, 173, 184; trench, 171, 174. See also Civil War; common soldier; common-soldier monuments; equestrian monuments; heroism

Washington, Booker T., address at Shaw Memorial, 193, 256n.103

Washington, D.C., 90, 107, 114, 212. See also Freedmen’s Memorial to Abraham Lincoln; Howard University; Lincoln Memorial; Lincoln monuments; Mall; National Lincoln Monument Association (Washington, D.C.); U.S. Capitol; Vietnam Veterans Memorial

Washington, George, 67, 70, 131, 168, 169; as Cincinnatus, 167; Greenough’s statue of, 54, 58, 62; Houdon’s statue of, 130; Mills’s equestrian monument to, 109

Waterbury, Connecticut, 180

Wedgwood, Josiah, 21, 22, 23

West, Cornel, 19

West Point Academy, 168

Western Sanitary Commission of St. Louis: dealings with National Lincoln Monument Association, Springfield, 100, 101, 103, 114; dealings with National Lincoln Monument Association, Washington, D.C., 103, 104, 107, 110–12, 114; membership of, 93; sponsorship of Freedmen’s Memorial, 91–92, 114–18, 128. See also Freedmen’s Memorial to Abraham Lincoln; Lincoln tomb; National Lincoln Monument Association (Washington, D.C.)

White, Captain Samuel, 155, 158–59, 160, 161, 162

White, Stanford, 123

white body, 9, 18, 47, 49, 162–63, 182, 186. See also African American body; whiteness

white supremacy, 134, 155; accommodating racial diversity, 138, 159; and commemoration of Lee, 132, 135, 150; naturalized, 135; and Shaw Memorial, 202, 204; in South Carolina, 51, 159; in Virginia, 135, 138, 211. See also Lee Monument; South Carolina

whiteness, 132, 150: and common-soldier monuments, 18–19, 162–63, 181, 186, 188; in opposition to blackness, 12, 18–19, 30, 47, 51, 117, 186, 203, 253n.59; in public sphere, 19; in sculpture, 9, 18–19, 30, 47, 181. See also African American body; common-soldier monuments; Greek Slave; white body

Whitney, Anne, Africa, 59

Whittier, John Greenleaf, 194

Williams, George Washington, 188, 190, 195, 196; History of the Negro Troops in the War of the Rebellion, 188, 189

women: in abolitionist movement, 94; as donors to monument campaigns, 90–91, 94, 188; as guardians of “culture,” 139, 150; as monument sponsors, 135, 139–40, 150, 188, 253n.64; monuments to, 5, 111–12, 159; in national monument to Lincoln, 111–12; role in common-soldier monuments, 188; as slaves, 30. See also abolitionists; emancipation; Greek Slave; Lee Monument; Virginia

World War I, 187

World War II, xi

Yeatman, James, 110, 111, 112, 114, 115. See also Freedmen’s Memorial to Abraham Lincoln; Western Sanitary Commission of St. Louis

Yonkers, 180; Soldiers’ and Sailors’ Monument, 179, 186, 189

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